The formal diplomatic relations between Japan and Western nations dawned when the first American consul-general Townsend Harris was received by the thirteenth Tokugawa shogun Iesada at Edo castle in 1857. This work unveils the seventeen castle audiences for Western envoys carried out by the Tokugawa shogunate (1603-1867) during its last decade of reign. Through that process, the shogunate completed a ceremonial form based on its own tradition, as well as consistent with the Western practice. The endeavours of Tokugawa retainers on the frontline of external affairs at the time, prior to the Meiji Restoration (1868), was the true first step of Japan’s entry into the international community. The formation of diplomatic ceremonial, progressed as a different layer from more political negotiations, provides an alternative history of bakumatsu (late years of the shogunate) foreign relations that has been overlooked in previous studies.
- Cover
- Table of Contents
- Translators’ Notes
- Foreword to the English Edition
- Introduction
- ( 1 ) The Scope and Aims of this Book: An Alternative History of Bakumatsu Foreign Relations
- ( 2 ) How This Book Differs from Previous Research: The Importance of Examining Overlooked Issues of Ceremonial
- ( 3 ) Research Methodology and the Organization of this Book
- I: The Background of Bakumatsu Diplomatic Ceremonial
- 1 The Ceremonial and Foreign Relations of the Tokugawa Shogunate
- Part 1. Palace Ceremonial of the Tokugawa Shogunate
- ( 1 ) Regular Observances throughout the Calendar Year
- ( 2 ) The Ceremonial of the Shogun and His Retainers
- ( 3 ) Ceremonial for Receiving Emissaries from Outside the Shogunate
- ( 4 ) Foreign Relations Ceremonial
- Part 2. Ceremonial for Receiving Korean Missions in Practice
- ( 1 ) From Departure from the Lodging Hall to the Waiting Room in Edo Castle
- ( 2 ) Attendees and Dress Code
- ( 3 ) The Program of the Audience
- ( 4 ) Banquet
- Part 3. The Accumulation of Diplomatic Experience: Shogunate Retainer Tsutsui Masanori
- ( 1 ) Tsutsui Masanori and the 1811 Embassy from Korea
- ( 2 ) Tsutsui Masanori’s Experience in Nagasaki
- ( 3 ) Diplomacy in the Bakumatsu Era and Tsutsui Masanori
- 2 Diplomatic Ceremonial in Western Nations
- Part 1. Standards of Diplomatic Business
- ( 1 ) Customary Practice in Ceremonies for Presentation of Credentials
- ( 2 ) What Does Diplomatic Ceremonial Signify?
- Part 2. Advances into Non-Western Areas and Views of Ceremonial
- ( 1 ) “The Local Etiquette”
- ( 2 ) Responses to Different Cultures: The Cases of Neighboring Asian Nations
- Column/Diplomats and Consuls
- II: The Unfolding of Bakumatsu Diplomatic Ceremonial
- 3 United States Consul General Harris’s Audience with the Shogun (1857)
- Part 1. How the Audience Came to Be Agreed Upon
- ( 1 ) Harris’s Request to Visit Edo and the Shogunate’s Response
- ( 2 ) Internal Debate in the Shogunate Leading up to Harris’s Appearance in Edo
- ( 3 ) The Position of Tsutsui Masanori in the Debate over Harris’s Visit to Edo
- ( 4 ) Tsutsui’s Views and “The Manner in which Embassies from Korea Were Treated”
- Part 2. The Day Townsend Harris Appeared at Edo Castle: The Twenty-First Day of the Tenth Month of Ansei 4 (1857)
- ( 1 ) From Departure from the Lodging Hall to the Waiting Room in Edo Castle
- ( 2 ) Attendees and Dress Code
- ( 3 ) The Program of the Audience
- ( 4 ) Banquet
- Part 3. Conclusion: Continuity from the Early Modern to Modern Era
- 4 The Evolution of Bakumatsu Ceremonial through Trial and Error
- Part 1. Shogunal Audiences for the Representatives of the Netherlands and Russia (1858)
- ( 1 ) The Shogunal Audience of Consul of the Netherlands Donker Curtius (The Fourth Month of Ansei 5 [1858])
- ( 2 ) The Shogunal Audience of the Russian Envoy Admiral Putjatin (The Seventh Month of Ansei 5 [1858])
- Part 2. Townsend Harris’s Second Audience (1859) with the Shogun and Its Aftermath
- ( 1 ) The Background to and Day of Harris’s Second Audience
- ( 2 ) The Controversy over a Redoing of the Audience
- ( 3 ) From Harris’s Third Audience to the Audiences for the British and French Ministers (1860)
- Part 3. Conclusion: Towards Sustainable Diplomacy
- 5 The Establishment of Ceremonial Forms
- Part 1. Developments Based on the “Permanent Ceremonial that Will Endure Unchanged”
- ( 1 ) Townsend Harris’s Fourth and Fifth Audiences with the Shogun (1861)
- ( 2 ) Difficulties with British Minister Alcock
- Part 2. Arriving at a Stable Diplomatic Ceremonial Regime
- ( 1 ) Shogunal Audiences Granted to U.S. Minister Harris, His Successor Pruyn, and French Minister de Bellecourt (Third to Fifth Month of Bunkyū 2 [1862])
- ( 2 ) The Audience of Russian Consul Goshkevich (The Intercalary Eighth Month of Bunkyū 2 [1862]) and Its Aftermath
- Part 3. Conclusion: Diplomatic Ceremonial Taking Root and Significance of the Ceremonial “Void”
- 6 Tokugawa Yoshinobu’s Audiences for Representatives of Four Western Nations (1867)
- Part 1. The Background of, and Preparations for, the Osaka Audiences
- ( 1 ) The Accession of a New Shogun and His Audiences with Foreign Ministers
- ( 2 ) Old and New Ceremonial Programs
- ( 3 ) Toward Implementation
- ( 4 ) Mitford Appears on the Scene
- ( 5 ) Osaka on the Eve of the Audiences
- Part 2. Osaka Castle on the Days of the Audiences
- ( 1 ) The Informal Audiences
- ( 2 ) The Formal Audiences
- Part 3. Developments after the Osaka Audiences
- ( 1 ) “To Make Relations with These Nations Permanent . . . ”
- ( 2 ) From the Shogunate’s Demise to the Emperor’s Diplomatic Ceremonial
- Part 4. Conclusion: The Further Unfolding of Bakumatsu Diplomatic Ceremonial
- Conclusion: How Bakumatsu Diplomatic Ceremonial Brought About “Diplomacy between Equals”
- Sources
- Published Primary Sources
- Unpublished Primary Sources
- Contemporary Works
- Secondary Sources
- Afterword
- Timeline
- Index
- List of Figures
- 3 United States Consul General Harris’s Audience with the Shogun (1857)
- Figure 1. Townsend Harris
- Figure 2. Painting by Henry Heusken of the U.S. consulate-general in Japan at Shimoda’s Gyokusenji temple
- Figure 3. Hotta Masayoshi
- Figure 4. Iwase Tadanari
- Figure 5. An in-land journey from Shimoda to Edo (Tokyo) of the first Consul General Towsend Harris in 1857 (watercolor)
- Figure 6. “Ansei kaisei O-edo ōezu” (Ansei 5 [1858])
- Figure 7. Photograph of the Ōte-san-no-mon gate from 1871
- Figure 8. Nagabakama
- Figure 9. Konōshi
- Figure 10. “Amerika shisetsu omemie no setsu ezu” (Illustration for the shogunal audience of the American envoy)
- Figure 11. Diagram of audience positions
- Figure 12. Nara-dai (right) and oshi (left)
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