"The combination of scientific and institutional integrity represented by this book is unusual. It should be a model for future endeavors to help quantify environmental risk as a basis for good decisionmaking." —William D. Ruckelshaus, from the foreword. This volume, prepared under the auspices of the Health Effects Institute, an independent research organization created and funded jointly by the Environmental Protection Agency and the automobile industry, brings together experts on atmospheric exposure and on the biological effects of toxic substances to examine what is known—and not known—about the human health risks of automotive emissions.
- AIR POLLUTION, THE AUTOMOBILE, AND PUBLIC HEALTH
- Copyright
- Foreword
- Contents
- Part I: Overview
- Automotive Emissions Research
- EMISSIONS CONTROL: THE HISTORY OF CONFLICT
- BENEFITS OF REGULATION
- CURRENT PROBLEMS FOR MOTOR VEHICLES
- IMPORTANCE OF CONTINUING HEALTH RESEARCH
- Regulations: Form or Substance?
- Safety Margins and Susceptible Groups
- Costs and Benefits
- Emergence of a New Regulatory Structure in Mobile Source Emission Regulation
- Research and Comprehensive Risk Management
- Regulatory Credibility and the Maturation of Toxicology
- THE HEALTH EFFECTS INSTITUTE AND THE SOCIAL CONTEXT
- Project History and Organization
- RATIONALE
- ORGANIZATION
- MESSAGES TO AND FROM THE AUTHORS
- ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
- STEERING COMMITTEE
- EXPOSURE ANALYSIS SUBCOMMITTEE
- BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS SUBCOMMITTEE
- PEER REVIEWERS
- Motor Vehicle Emissions: A Strategy for Quantifying Risk
- AUTOMOTIVE EMISSIONS: A BRIEF PERSPECTIVE
- UNDERSTANDING THE COMPONENTS OF RISK
- Chemical and Physical Properties of Pollutants
- Pollutant Exposure and Dose to Biological Tissues
- Biological Responses to Pollutants
- Sensitive Individuals
- RESEARCH APPROACHES
- Epidemiology
- Experimental Methods
- Mathematical Models
- Physical Models
- PURSUING QUANTITATIVE TOXICOLOGY: A STRATEGY FOR RESEARCH
- Highlights of the Authors' Recommendations
- Criteria for Prioritization
- A Proposed Research Strategy
- Summary
- CONCLUSION
- References
- Part II: Exposure Analysis
- Automotive Emissions
- POLLUTION FROM AUTOMOBILES—PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS
- Emissions Standards and Control Approaches
- Fuel Economy
- In-Use Passenger Car Emissions
- EMISSIONS REGULATIONS
- Emission Test Procedures
- Emission Standards
- U.S. Fuel Economy Standards
- VEHICLE AND EMISSION CONTROL SYSTEM TECHNOLOGY
- Spark-Ignition Gasoline-Powered Vehicles
- Diesel-Powered Passenger Cars: Particulate Control
- Diesel-Powered Heavy-Duty Vehicles
- IN-USE VEHICLE AND ENGINE CHARACTERISTICS
- Gasoline-Powered Passenger Cars and Trucks
- Diesel-Powered Passenger Cars
- Diesel-Powered Trucks
- MODELS FOR PREDICTING FUTURE EMISSIONS
- FUELS AND FUEL ADDITIVES
- Trends in Gasoline Fuel Properties
- Fuel Usage Trends
- Methanol-Fueled Vehicles
- Trends in Diesel Fuel Properties
- Refueling Emissions
- Additives
- METHODS FOR MEASURING THE UNREGULATED POLLUTANTS*
- Sampling
- Analytical Methods
- CURRENT REGULATED AND UNREGULATED EMISSIONS
- Regulated Emissions
- Unregulated Emissions
- SUMMARY OF RESEARCH RECOMMENDATIONS
- ACKNOWLEDGMENT
- References
- Atmospheric Transport and Dispersion of Air Pollutants Associated with Vehicular Emissions
- DEFINITIONS OF TRANSPORT AND DISPERSION
- Meteorological Parameters
- Scales of Motion
- TRANSPORT AND DISPERSION: THEORY AND APPLICATIONS
- Near Field
- Urban-Scale Transport and Dispersion
- Regional-Scale Transport
- SUMMARY
- SUMMARY OF RESEARCH RECOMMENDATIONS
- References
- Atmospheric Transformations of Automotive Emissions
- COMPONENTS OF ATMOSPHERIC POLLUTION
- PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL TRANSFORMATIONS UNDER ATMOSPHERIC CONDITIONS
- Physical Removal Processes
- Chemical Removal Processes
- ATMOSPHERIC LIFETIMES, FATES, AND PRODUCTS OF THE ATMOSPHERIC TRANSFORMATIONS OF AUTOMOTIVE EMISSIONS
- Atmospheric Lifetimes
- Atmospheric Transformations
- Analytical Techniques
- SUMMARY
- SUMMARY OF RESEARCH RECOMMENDATIONS
- References
- Ambient Levels of Anthropogenic Emissions and Their Atmospheric Transformation Products
- CONCENTRATIONS OF ATMOSPHERIC TRACE CONSTITUENTS
- Temporal and Spatial Patterns of Primary Gases
- Selected Particle Constituents
- Photochemical Products and Unregulated Emittants
- INDOOR CONCENTRATIONS
- Principal Trace Gases
- Minor Emittants and Products
- EMITTANTS WITH POTENTIAL GLOBAL INFLUENCE
- Carbon Dioxide
- Carbon Monoxide
- Methane
- SUMMARY
- Data Adequacy
- Trends
- Concentrations
- SUMMARY OF RESEARCH RECOMMENDATIONS
- ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
- References
- Mathematical Modeling of the Effect of Emission Sources on Atmospheric Pollutant Concentrations
- DEVELOPMENT OF AIR QUALITY MODELS
- Components of Exposure
- Source/Receptor Relationships
- Historical Perspective
- EMISSION SOURCE CHARACTERISTICS
- CATEGORIES OF AIR QUALITY MODELS
- Empirical/Statistical Models
- Deterministic Models
- Temporal and Spatial Resolution of Empirical and Analytical Models
- MODELING APPROACHES FOR INDIVIDUAL PROCESSES
- Turbulent Transport and Diffusion
- Complex Terrain: Street Canyons
- Removal Processes
- Representation of Atmospheric Chemistry Through Chemical Mechanisms
- Aerosol Dynamics
- MODEL EVALUATION
- Approaches for Testing Model Performance
- Data Requirements
- Analysis of Model Performance
- APPLICATION OF AIR QUALITY MODELS
- Population Exposure Calculations
- Source Apportionment and Control Strategies
- Future Uses
- SPECIAL TOPICS AND EMERGING ISSUES IN AIR QUALITY MODELING
- Modeling Large-Scale Processes
- Modeling Small-Scale Processes
- Indoor/Outdoor Pollutant Relationships
- CONCLUSION
- SUMMARY OF RESEARCH RECOMMENDATIONS
- ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
- References
- Assessment of Human Exposure to Air Pollution: Methods, Measurements, and Models
- HUMAN EXPOSURE: INTRODUCTION
- DEFINITIONS
- Concentration, Exposure, and Dose
- Components of Exposure
- Types of Exposure Information
- Individual Exposure Versus Population Exposure
- METHODS
- Air Monitoring
- Biological Monitoring
- Research Recommendations
- MEASUREMENTS
- Air Monitoring
- Research Recommendation
- Biological Monitoring
- Research Recommendation
- MODELING HUMAN EXPOSURE TO AIR POLLUTION
- Statistical Modeling
- Physical Modeling
- Physical-Stochastic Modeling
- Source Apportionment
- Validation and Generalization
- Research Recommendation
- SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
- SUMMARY OF RESEARCH RECOMMENDATIONS
- ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
- References
- Biological Disposition of Airborne Particles: Basic Principles and Application to Vehicular Emissions
- STRUCTURE OF THE RESPIRATORY TRACT
- Upper Respiratory Tract
- Tracheobronchial Tree
- Pulmonary Region
- Research Recommendations
- VENTILATION
- Ventilatory Parameters
- Comparative Aspects of Ventilation
- Airflow Patterns
- Research Recommendations
- DEPOSITION OF INHALED PARTICLES IN THE RESPIRATORY TRACT
- Deposition Mechanisms and Controlling Factors
- Measurement of Deposition
- Factors Modifying Deposition
- Localized Patterns of Deposition
- Mathematical Modeling
- Research Recommendations
- RETENTION OF DEPOSITED PARTICLES
- Clearance Mechanisms: Basic Structure and Function
- Clearance Kinetics
- Factors Modifying Clearance
- Research Recommendations
- DISPOSITION OF VEHICULAR PARTICULATE EMISSIONS
- Diesel Exhaust Particles
- Metals
- Sulfates
- Research Recommendations
- SUMMARY
- SUMMARY OF RESEARCH RECOMMENDATIONS: DISCUSSION
- SUMMARY OF RESEARCH RECOMMENDATIONS: PRIORITIES
- References
- Biological Disposition of Vehicular Airborne Emissions: Particle-Associated Organic Constituents
- SIGNIFICANCE OF CARRIER PARTICLES
- CHARACTERISTICS OF PARTICLE-ASSOCIATED AIR POLLUTANTS
- INHALATION OF AIRBORNE PARTICLES
- Disposition of Inhaled Particle-Associated Organic Compounds
- Bio availability of Particle-Associated Organic Compounds
- TOXICITY OF INHALED ORGANIC COMPOUNDS
- Varieties of Toxic Responses
- Metabolism of Chemical Carcinogens
- Effects on the Immune System
- SUMMARY
- SUMMARY OF RESEARCH RECOMMENDATIONS
- ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
- References
- Transport and Uptake of Inhaled Gases
- IMPLICATIONS OF LUNG ANATOMY
- Upper Airways
- Conducting Airways
- Respiratory Zone
- Nonuniformities in Ventilation and Perfusion
- FUNDAMENTALS OF MASS TRANSPORT
- Thermodynamic Equilibria
- Diffusion and Reaction Rates
- Individual Mass Transfer Coefficients
- Overall Mass Transfer Coefficients
- Longitudinal Gas Transport
- MATHEMATICAL MODELS
- Compartment Models
- Distributed-Parameter Upper Airway Models
- Distributed-Parameter Lower Airway Models
- EXPERIMENTS
- In Vitro Methods
- In Vivo Animal Experiments
- In Vivo Human Subject Studies
- SUMMARY
- SUMMARY OF RESEARCH RECOMMENDATIONS
- ACKNOWLEDGMENT
- References
- Dosimetry Modeling of Inhaled Toxic Reactive Gases
- APPLICATIONS OF DOSIMETRY MODELING
- ANATOMICAL, PHYSIOLOGICAL, AND CHEMICAL CONSIDERATIONS
- Anatomical Models
- Liquid Lining of the Respiratory Tract
- Lung Tissue and Blood
- PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL FACTORS AFFECTING ABSORPTION OF REACTIVE GASES
- Solubility
- Molecular Diffusion
- Convection in Respiratory Tract Fluids
- Chemical Reactions
- DOSIMETRY MODELING
- Upper Respiratory Tract and Total Respiratory Tract Models
- Lower Respiratory Tract Models
- Influence of Anatomical and Physiological Factors
- Influence of Physicochemical Factors
- Importance of Experimental Data
- SUMMARY
- SUMMARY OF RESEARCH RECOMMENDATIONS
- References
- Part III: Biological Effects
- Epidemiologic Studies of Effects of Oxidant Exposure on Human Populations
- ROLE OF EPIDEMIOLOGY IN AIR POLLUTION RESEARCH
- PRIOR AND ONGOING STUDIES—DESIGNS, FINDINGS, AND PROBLEMS
- Cross-Sectional Studies of Pulmonary Function and Symptoms
- Prospective Cohort Studies
- Retrospective Studies
- GENERIC ISSUES
- Exposure Assessment
- Effects Assessment
- SPECIFIC ISSUES AND STUDY APPROACHES
- Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease
- Asthma/Bronchial Hyperresponders
- Respiratory Infection
- Attributable Risk
- SUMMARY
- SUMMARY OF RESEARCH RECOMMENDATIONS
- Specific Research Issues
- Generic Issues
- ACKNOWLEDGMENT
- References
- Biochemical and Cellular Interrelationships in the Development of Ozone-Induced Pulmonary Fibrosis
- DIFFICULTIES IN RELATING OZONE EXPOSURE TO LUNG DISEASE
- RESPONSE TO FIBROGENIC INSULT
- Acute Lung Injury and Edema
- Transition from Pulmonary Edema to Cellular Inflammation
- The Middle Phase
- Lung Fibrosis
- MODELS OF EXPOSURE
- Experimental Approaches
- Chronic Exposure
- Progression of Lung Injury After Cessation of Exposure
- Synergistic Interactions
- DETERMINATION OF HUMAN RISK
- IDENTIFICATION OF SUSCEPTIBLE POPULATIONS
- SUMMARY
- SUMMARY OF RESEARCH RECOMMENDATIONS
- Acute Phase of Injury
- Middle Phase of Injury
- Late Phase of Injury
- Other Considerations
- References
- Relation of Pulmonary Emphysema and Small Airways Disease to Vehicular Emissions
- LUNG ANATOMY AND DEFENSE MECHANISMS
- Airway Cells
- Alveoli
- Deposition of Particulates
- PATHOLOGIC CONDITIONS: CONCEPTS AND QUANTIFICATION
- Emphysema
- Small Airways Disease
- Mucus Hypersecretion
- ANIMAL MODELS OF HUMAN DISEASE
- Emphysema
- Small Airways Disease
- EMPHYSEMA AND SMALL AIRWAYS DISEASE: RELATIONS TO VEHICULAR EMISSIONS
- Lung Disease Produced in Animals by Vehicular Emissions
- Animal Exposure to Diesel Exhaust
- SUMMARY
- SUMMARY OF RESEARCH RECOMMENDATIONS: DISCUSSION
- Pathogenesis of Pulmonary Disease
- Pathobialogy
- Animal Studies
- Human Studies
- SUMMARY OF RESEARCH RECOMMENDATIONS: PRIORITIES
- In Vitro Experiments
- In Vivo Experiments
- Human Studies
- References
- Asthma and Automotive Emissions
- ASTHMA: DEFINITION, DEMOGRAPHY, AND CLINICAL SPECTRUM
- Definition
- Demography
- Clinical Spectrum
- ASTHMA: PATHOGENESIS
- Extrinsic and Intrinsic Asthma
- Early and Late Reactions to Allergens
- Bronchial Hyperreactivity
- CONTROLLED EXPOSURE STUDIES
- Normal Subjects
- Asthmatic Subjects
- Need for Further Research
- ASTHMA: PATHOPHYSIOLOGY
- Assessment of Airways Size
- Distribution of Airflow Resistance Along the Airways
- Mechanisms of Bronchoconstriction
- Ozone Exposure
- RESPIRATORY EPITHELIUM: ASTHMA AND OZONE
- Permeability
- Mucous Production and Secretion
- Ion Transport
- Mucociliary Clearance
- EXPERIMENTAL MODELS
- Human Studies
- Laboratory Animal Models
- Cells in Culture
- SUMMARY OF RESEARCH RECOMMENDATIONS: DISCUSSION
- SUMMARY OF RESEARCH RECOMMENDATIONS: PRIORITIES
- Descriptive Studies
- Mechanistic Studies
- References
- Effects of Automotive Emissions on Susceptibility to Respiratory Infections
- THE HYPOTHESIS
- BACKGROUND
- Determinants of Susceptibility
- Occurrence of Respiratory Infections
- Lung Defense Mechanisms
- Long-Term Effects of Infection
- EPIDEMIOLOGIC APPROACH
- Documentation and Measurement of Respiratory Infection
- Other Epidemiologic Variables
- EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH
- Experimental Infections
- Studies of Lung Defense Mechanisms
- GAPS IN KNOWLEDGE AND RESEARCH RECOMMENDATIONS
- Epidemiologic Study Design
- Experimental Studies
- SUMMARY
- SUMMARY OF RESEARCH RECOMMENDATIONS
- References
- Assessment of Carcinogenicity: Generic Issues and Their Application to Diesel Exhaust
- MECHANISMS OF CARCINOGENESIS RELEVANT TO ASSESSMENT OF MOBILE SOURCE EMISSIONS
- Experimental Models in Chemical Carcinogenesis
- Role of DNA Replication and Repair
- Genetic Effects of Carcinogen Damage to DNA
- Atypical Carcinogens
- Promotion, Cocarcinogenesis, and Enhancement
- Multistep Processes
- Variations in Susceptibility
- Metabolic Conversion and Carcinogen Activation
- QUALITATIVE ASSESSMENTS OF CARCINOGENICITY
- Epidemiologic Evaluation
- Bioassays in Experimental Animals
- Short-Term Tests in Vivo and in Vitro
- METHODS FOR QUANTITATIVE EXTRAPOLATIONS TO HUMAN CANCER RISK
- Estimation of Quantitative Risk in Laboratory Animals
- Extrapolations Among Species
- Extrapolations Among Routes of Administration or Exposure
- Extrapolation to Dose Levels of Human Exposure
- EXPERIMENTAL EVIDENCE ON CARCINOGENICITY OF DIESEL EXHAUST
- Short-Term Tests of Activity of Diesel Emissions
- Data on Carcinogenic Activity of Diesel Exhaust Emissions
- Quantitative Assessment of the Cancer Risk of Diesel Exhaust in Humans
- SUMMARY
- SUMMARY OF RESEARCH RECOMMENDATIONS: PRIORITIES, PURPOSES, AND RESPONSIBILITIES
- SUMMARY OF RESEARCH RECOMMENDATIONS: A RESEARCH PLAN
- ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
- References
- Potential Carcinogenic Effects of Polynuclear Aromatic Hydrocarbons and Nitroaromatics in Mobile Sou ...
- HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE AND DIRECTIONS FOR THE FUTURE
- EVALUATION OF POLYAROMATIC HYDROCARBON AND NITRO-POLYAROMATIC HYDROCARBON CARCINOGENICITY
- Role of Poly aromatic Hydrocarbons as Human Carcinogens
- Tumorigenicity of Polyaromatic Hydrocarbons in Laboratory Animals
- Modifiers of Polyaromatic Hydrocarbon Carcinogenesis
- Carcinogenicity of Nitro-Polyaromatic Hydrocarbons
- METABOLIC ACTIVATION AND DETOXIFICATION OF POLYAROMATIC HYDROCARBONS AND NITRO-POLYAROMATIC HYDROCARBONS
- Absorption and Distribution upon Inhalation
- Benzo[a]pyrene
- Other Polyaromatic Hydrocarbons
- Nitro-Polyaromatic Hydrocarbons
- RESEARCH PROBLEMS RELATING TO THE POTENTIAL CARCINOGENIC EFFECTS OF POLYAROMATIC HYDROCARBONS AND NI ...
- Individual Dosimetry
- Bioassays in Laboratory Animals
- Mechanisms of Polyaromatic Hydrocarbon and Nitro-Polyaromatic Hydrocarbon Carcinogenesis
- SUMMARY
- SUMMARY OF RESEARCH RECOMMENDATIONS
- ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
- References
- Health Effects of Aldehydes and Alcohols in Mobile Source Emissions
- AMBIENT LEVELS AND PRODUCTION BY MOBILE SOURCES
- HEALTH EFFECTS
- Aldehydes
- Methanol
- Phenols and Catechols
- Cocarcinogenic Effects of Aldehydes, Alcohols, and Phenols
- METABOLISM
- Methanol and Formaldehyde
- Acrolein
- Measurement of Inspired Methanol and Formaldehyde
- Chemical Reactions
- QUANTIFICATION OF EXPOSURE AND ESTIMATION OF HUMAN RISK
- SUMMARY
- SUMMARY OF RESEARCH RECOMMENDATIONS
- Exposure
- Health Effects
- Cellular Effects
- Molecular Dosimetry
- References
- Evaluation of Automotive Emissions as Risk Factors for the Development of Atherosclerosis and Corona ...
- ATHEROSCLEROSIS
- Natural History
- Pathogenesis
- FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE ATHEROGENESIS
- Age
- Gender
- Genetic Susceptibility
- Psychosocial Phenomena
- Diet
- ANIMAL MODELS
- Avian Species
- Nonprimates
- Nonhuman Primates
- EFFECTS OF CHEMICALS ON ATHEROGENESIS
- Plasma Lipoproteins as Chemical Carriers
- Cigarette Smoking
- Carbon Monoxide
- Clonal Character of and Carcinogen Effects on Plaques
- SUMMARY
- SUMMARY OF RESEARCH RECOMMENDATIONS
- References
- Identifying Neurobehavioral Effects of Automotive Emissions and Fuel Components
- NEUROBEHAVIORAL EFFECTS AND MECHANISMS OF TOXICITY
- Identifying Acute Hazards
- Toxicity in Repeated or Continuous Exposures
- Identifying Subtle Effects
- Pursuing the Mechanisms of Toxicity
- EVALUATING WHOLE EMISSIONS, FUELS, AND THEIR COMPONENTS
- Whole Emissions and Their Photochemical By-products
- Carbon Monoxide
- Petroleum Hydrocarbons
- Methanol
- Metals and Inorganic Compounds
- CONCLUSIONS
- SUMMARY
- SUMMARY OF RESEARCH RECOMMENDATIONS
- References
- Index
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