This book addresses new technologies being considered by the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) for screening airport passengers for concealed weapons and explosives. The FAA is supporting the development of promising new technologies that can reveal the presence not only of metal-based weapons as with current screening technologies, but also detect plastic explosives and other non-metallic threat materials and objects, and is concerned that these new technologies may not be appropriate for use in airports for other than technical reasons. This book presents discussion of the health, legal, and public acceptance issues that are likely to be raised regarding implementation of improvements in the current electromagnetic screening technologies, implementation of screening systems that detect traces of explosive materials on passengers, and implementation of systems that generate images of passengers beneath their clothes for analysis by human screeners.
- Airline Passenger Security Screening
- Copyright
- Acknowledgments
- Preface
- Contents
- Executive Summary
- BACKGROUND
- LINKS BETWEEN PASSENGER INCONVENIENCE AND LEVEL OF THREAT
- ASSESSMENT OF PUBLIC ACCEPTANCE
- TECHNOLOGICAL IMPROVEMENTS
- Improvements to Current Technologies
- Technologies to Address Future Passenger Screening Requirements
- Imaging Technologies
- Trace-Detection Technologies
- ROLE OF OPERATORS IN PASSENGER SCREENING
- 1 Introduction
- DEVELOPMENT OF AVIATION SECURITY
- FAA Anti-Hijacking Program
- PASSENGER SCREENING
- Operation of Passenger Screening Systems
- KEY ISSUES
- 2 Methodology
- PANEL MEETINGS
- WORKSHOP ON PASSENGER SCREENING
- SUMMARY
- 3 Passenger Screening Technologies
- PASSENGER-PROFILING SYSTEM
- IMAGING TECHNOLOGIES
- Passive Millimeter-Wave Imaging
- Active Millimeter-Wave Imaging
- Active X-ray Imaging
- Assessment of Imaging Technologies
- TRACE-DETECTION TECHNOLOGIES
- Sample Collection
- Identifying Explosive Materials
- NONIMAGING ELECTROMAGNETIC TECHNOLOGIES
- CLEARING AN ALARM
- SUMMARY
- 4 Operational and Cost Issues
- AIR CARRIER OPERATIONS
- AIRPORT FACILITIES OPERATIONS
- DELAYS CAUSED BY AVIATION SECURITY MEASURES
- SUMMARY
- 5 Operator Ergonomics, Selection, Training, and Motivation
- RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PAY AND PERFORMANCE
- ERGONOMICS IN SYSTEM DESIGN
- OPERATOR SELECTION, TRAINING, AND MOTIVATION
- MEASURING OPERATOR PERFORMANCE
- POTENTIAL OPERATOR CONCERNS WITH SPECIFIC SCREENING TECHNOLOGIES
- Imaging Technologies
- Trace-Detection Technologies
- Nonimaging Electromagnetic Technologies
- SUMMARY
- 6 Health Effects
- CANCER
- Ionizing Radiation
- Nonionizing Radiation
- REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH EFFECTS
- HEART DISEASE AND PACEMAKERS
- SOME POSSIBLE HEALTH CONCERNS ASSOCIATED WITH SPECIFIC SCREENING TECHNOLOGIES
- Imaging Technologies
- Trace-Detection Technologies
- Nonimaging Electromagnetic Technologies
- SUMMARY
- 7 Legal Issues
- UNCONSTITUTIONAL SEARCH
- Administrative Search Exception
- Balancing Approach
- Less Intrusive Alternatives
- Potential for Abuse
- Stop-and-Frisk Exception
- Individual Stop-and-Frisk Search
- Selectee Class Stop-and-Frisk Search
- Consent Exception
- Other Exceptions to Fourth Amendment Requirements
- TORT CLAIMS
- ROLE OF THE FAA
- SOME POSSIBLE LEGAL CONCERNS ASSOCIATED WITH SPECIFIC SCREENING TECHNOLOGIES
- Imaging Technologies
- Trace-Detection Technologies
- Nonimaging Electromagnetic Technologies
- SUMMARY
- 8 Public Acceptance
- PUBLIC CONCERNS ABOUT HEALTH EFFECTS
- PUBLIC CONCERNS ABOUT PRIVACY
- PUBLIC CONCERNS ABOUT CONVENIENCE
- PUBLIC CONCERNS ABOUT COMFORT
- ASSESSING PUBLIC ACCEPTANCE
- RESULTS OF THE WORKSHOP ON NEW TECHNOLOGIES FOR PASSENGER SCREENING
- Health Effects of Radiant Energy from Imaging Technologies
- Displaying Images of the Bodies of Subjects
- Possible Unlawful Search and Seizure
- Time Required for Passenger Screening
- SOME POSSIBLE PUBLIC ACCEPTANCE CONCERNS ASSOCIATED WITH SPECIFIC SCREENING TECHNOLOGIES
- Imaging Technologies
- Trace-Detection Technologies
- Nonimaging Electromagnetic Technologies
- SUMMARY
- 9 Conclusions and Recommendations
- ASSESSMENT OF SYSTEM ENHANCEMENTS
- IMPROVEMENTS TO CURRENT SCREENING SYSTEMS
- TECHNOLOGIES TO MEET FUTURE PASSENGER SCREENING REQUIREMENTS
- Imaging Technologies
- Trace-Detection Technologies
- Nonimaging Electromagnetic Technologies
- OPERATOR PERFORMANCE
- References
- APPENDICES
- Appendix A Laws, Regulations, and Treaties
- FEDERAL STATUTES AND REGULATIONS
- INTERNATIONAL PROTOCOLS AND TREATIES
- Appendix B Follow-up Information from Workshop Attendees
- ALVY DODSON, AIRPORT LAW ENFORCEMENT AGENTS NETWORK
- SUSAN RORK, AIR TRANSPORT ASSOCIATION AND DEBORAH McELROY, REGIONAL AIRLINE ASSOCIATION
- MEG LEITH, ASSOCIATION OF FLIGHT ATTENDANTS
- A. ELECTROMAGNETIC I
- B. ELECTROMAGNETIC II
- C. TRACE DETECTION
- D. WANDING
- Appendix C Selected Legal Cases Relevant to Aviation Security
- THEORY AND PRACTICE OF SELECTED LEGAL ISSUES
- Search or Seizure
- Government Conduct
- KLARFELD V. UNITED STATES
- UNITED STATES V. $124,570 U.S. CURRENCY
- Appendix D Biographical Sketches of Panel Members
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