Disposal of radioactive waste from nuclear weapons production and power generation has caused public outcry and political consternation. Nuclear Wastes presents a critical review of some waste management and disposal alternatives to the current national policy of direct disposal of light water reactor spent fuel. The book offers clearcut conclusions for what the nation should do today and what solutions should be explored for tomorrow.
The committee examines the currently used "once-through" fuel cycle versus different alternatives of separations and transmutation technology systems, by which hazardous radionuclides are converted to nuclides that are either stable or radioactive with short half-lives. The volume provides detailed findings and conclusions about the status and feasibility of plutonium extraction and more advanced separations technologies, as well as three principal transmutation concepts for commercial reactor spent fuel.
The book discusses nuclear proliferation; the U.S. nuclear regulatory structure; issues of health, safety and transportation; the proposed sale of electrical energy as a means of paying for the transmutation system; and other key issues.
- Nuclear Wastes
- Copyright
- Preface
- Contents
- Executive Summary
- THE "ONCE-THROUGH" FUEL CYCLE
- THE S&T CONCEPTS
- OVERALL CONCLUSIONS
- DETAILED FINDINGS AND CONCLUSIONS
- Findings Regarding Potential Radiological Effects of S&T
- Findings Regarding Separations Technology
- Separations Technology Requirements for ALMR and LWR
- Separations Technology Requirements for the ATW
- Findings Regarding Transmutation Technology
- Current Status of LWR, ALMR, and ATW
- Relative Capabilities of the Concepts for TRU Transmutation
- ALMR
- LWR
- ATW
- Findings Regarding Feasibility, Development, and Deployment
- Findings Regarding System Integration
- The Nature of an S&T System
- Findings Regarding Economics
- Issues
- Implications of Fuel Reprocessing Costs
- Pyroprocessing and Cost Perspective
- Findings Regarding Effects on Repository Capacity and Program
- The Need to Dispose of Fission Products and Residual Wastes
- Transmutation and Repository Capacity
- Findings Regarding Nontechnical Issues
- Institutional and Public Policy Considerations
- Legislative and Administrative Constraints
- Financing
- Proliferation Issues
- Public Acceptance
- Findings Regarding Research and Development
- Scope for Research and Development
- Findings Regarding Defense Wastes
- Safety of Hanford Waste Storage Tanks
- Characterization of Hanford Tank Wastes
- Retrieval, Separation and Treatment Potential for Hanford Tank Wastes
- PRINCIPAL RECOMMENDATIONS
- Chapter One Introduction
- COMMITTEE MISSION AND OPERATION
- Committee Formation and Mandate
- Why Actinide Burning is Being Reconsidered
- Institutional Incentives
- Technical Incentives
- Scope of Study
- Time-Frame
- S&T Areas
- Technologies
- BACKGROUND ON SPENT REACTOR FUEL AND HIGH-LEVEL WASTE DISPOSAL
- History
- Current Waste Disposal Situation
- Spent Reactor Fuel
- Defense High-Level Waste
- Current Policies Governing High-Level Waste Management
- Commercial Spent Fuel
- Defense High-Level Waste
- ORGANIZATION OF THE REPORT
- REFERENCES
- Chapter Two Summaries of S&T Proposals and Radionuclides Release Scenarios in Repository
- SOURCE AND CHARACTERISTICS OF RADIONUCLIDES IN SPENT FUEL
- Radioactivity Produced by Reactors
- Toxicity Considerations and Isotopes of Concern
- Toxicity Index
- Isotopes of Principal Concern
- The Uranium Problem
- SUMMARY OF S&T PROPOSALS AND TECHNOLOGY STATEMENTS
- Light-Water Reactor (LWR)
- Advanced Liquid-Metal Reactor (ALMR)
- Accelerator Transmutation of Nuclear Waste (ATW)
- Separations Technology and Commercial Spent-Fuel Reprocessing
- Separations and Transmutation of Plutonium Only
- Defense High-Level Waste
- RADIONUCLIDES AND REPOSITORY PERFORMANCE
- LWR Spent Fuel Characterization
- Estimating Radiological Repository Risk
- Radionuclide Release Scenarios
- An Optimized Waste Form
- REFERENCES
- Chapter Three Separations Technology
- HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
- Aqueous Processes
- Nonaqueous Processes
- TYPES OF WASTES
- Spent Reactor Fuel
- Defense Nuclear Waste
- TYPES OF SEPARATIONS
- Aqueous Processes
- PUREX Process
- TRUEX Process
- Other Aqueous Processes
- Non-Aqueous Processes
- Electrochemical Separations—IFR
- Molten Salt Processes—ATW
- Fluoride Volatility Processes
- SEPARATIONS FOR TRANSMUTATION OF LWR FUEL
- Separations for Burning in LWRs
- Separations for Burning in IFRs
- Separations for Burning in Accelerator-Driven Reactors
- Aqueous Methods
- Nonaqueous Methods
- Combination Methods
- CONCLUSIONS
- REFERENCES
- Chapter Four Transmutation Systems
- TRANSMUTATION PROCESSES AND CONCEPTS
- Transmutation Processes
- Transmutation of Key Fission Products
- Transmutation of Transuranics
- Transmutation Reactor Approaches
- Classes of Reactor Concepts
- Engineering and Materials Issues
- Program Funding
- International Activities
- Overview of Critical Reactor Concepts
- Fast Critical Reactor Concepts
- Thermal Critical Reactor Concepts
- Overview of Accelerator-Driven Reactor Concepts
- Separations with Transmutation of Plutonium (only)
- REDUCTION OF TRANSURANIC INVENTORIES
- Introduction
- The Transuranic (TRU) Ratio
- Scenarios for Constant Transmuter Power
- Declining Power Scenario
- Inventories and Transmutation Rates
- Constant-Power ALMRs, Unlimited Supply of TRUs From Stockpile of LWR Spent Fuel
- Constant-Power ALMRs, Limited Stockpile of LWR Spent Fuel, Additional LWRs
- Constant-Power ATWs
- Declining-Power ATWs
- Constant-Power LWR Transmuters
- Declining-Power LWR Transmuters
- PBR Transmuters
- Nonbreeding Transmuters Converted to Breeders After Stockpile Depletion
- Constant Power Transmuters Followed by Declining Power Shutdown
- Summary
- REDUCTION OF KEY FISSION PRODUCT INVENTORIES
- SAFETY ISSUES FOR THE REACTOR, FUEL MATERIALS, AND SUPPORTING FUEL CYCLE
- Decay-Heat and Target-Heat Removal
- Reactivity Control
- Reactivity Transients
- Materials Degradation
- Fluid Fuels in the ATW
- Potential for Reduction in Mining and Milling Hazards
- DEVELOPMENT TIME, COST, FEASIBILITY, AND RISK THROUGH SYSTEM DEMONSTRATION
- LWR Transmutation System
- ALMR/IFR Transmutation System
- Accelerator Transmutation of Waste (ATW)
- Other (Secondary) Transmutation Concepts
- PBR Transmutation System
- Phoenix Transmutation System
- TIME SCALES AND COSTS FOR MODEL SYSTEM DEPLOYMENTS
- Basis for Transmutation System Deployments
- Deployments for Declining Nuclear Power
- Reprocessing Requirements and Deployment Rate
- Deployments for Steady Nuclear Power Generation
- COMPARATIVE THERMAL AND ELECTRICAL EFFICIENCIES
- PRINCIPAL FINDINGS AND CONCLUSIONS
- REFERENCES
- Chapter Five Defense Wastes
- THE HANFORD TANKS
- Inventory and Characterization of Stored Waste
- Remediation Processing Considerations
- SCENARIOS FOR HANFORD TANK REMEDIATION
- Decision Factors
- Alternative Scenarios
- No Separations Option
- Sludge Washing
- Solvent Extraction for Actinide Concentration
- Extensive Separations
- In-Place Option
- Pristine Site Restoration
- TRU Isolation for Transmutation
- CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
- REFERENCES
- Chapter Six Analysis of the Issues
- IMPACT OF S&T ON WASTE REPOSITORY
- Evaluation of Possible Repository Releases
- Effects of S&T Processes
- Impact on the First Repository
- Impact on a Second Repository
- Conclusions
- TRANSPORTATION-RELATED ISSUES
- Nuclear Material Transport
- Transportation Package Technology
- Regulations Related to Transportation Packages
- Conclusions
- PROLIFERATION ISSUES
- Nuclear Nonproliferation and the Once-Through Fuel Cycle
- Proliferation Issues Related to S&T Systems
- Diversion Threats
- Abrogation Threats
- Conclusions
- HEALTH AND SAFETY ISSUES
- Health Impacts
- Health Effects of Fuel Cycles
- Health Effects of Transmutation
- Summary
- COST OF FUEL REPROCESSING
- Introduction
- Relative Economics of Reprocessing versus Once-Through Fuel Cycle for LWRs
- Capital Costs and Throughouts of Contemporary Reprocessing Plants
- Operating Costs
- Financing Costs
- Private Financing
- Utility Financing
- Government-Owned Reprocessing Facility
- Unit Costs of LWR Reprocessing with U.S. Financing
- Costs Associated With Other Reprocessing Plant Studies
- Summary
- POLICY, INSTITUTIONAL, AND MANAGEMENT ISSUES
- Policy
- Licensing, Siting, and Public Acceptance
- Financial Provisions
- System Requirements
- Summary
- REGULATORY ISSUES
- Current Federal Regulations
- Once-Through Cycle
- Waste Storage and Disposal
- The Regulatory Role of the States
- Conclusions
- RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT NEEDS
- Civilian Reactor Spent Fuels
- Neutralized Defense High-Level Waste
- REFERENCES
- Appendixes
- Appendix A Statement Of Work
- Appendix B List Of Committee and Subcommittee Activities
- Appendix C Base Case Once-Through Uranium Fuel Cycle for Light-Water Reactor with Geological Repository
- Appendix D Separations Technology—Additional Information
- Introduction
- Aqueous Processes
- Bismuth Phosphate Process
- REDOX Process
- PUREX Process
- Nonaqueous Processes
- Fluoride Volatility Processing
- Molten-Salt Processes
- Electrochemical Separations
- Argonne National Laboratory Program in Pyroprocessing as Related to Integral Fast Reactor and Light Water...
- Integral Fast Reactor (IFR) Pyroprocessing Separations
- Light-Water Reactor (Lwr) Actinide Extraction/Separation Process
- Reprocessing Experience In The United States And Abroad
- Experience at Various U.S. Sites
- West Valley, New York
- Morris, Illinois
- Barnwell, South Carolina
- Future Prospects
- Experience Abroad
- France
- United Kingdom
- Japan
- The Former Soviet Union
- Other Nations
- Future Separations Processes
- Possible Technologies for Actinide Separation
- Solvent Extraction
- Ion Exchange And Adsorption
- Membrane Processes
- Volatilization
- Atomic Vapor Laser Isotope Separation
- Precipitation
- Natural Agents
- Transport
- Possibilities for Technetium Separation
- Solvent Extraction And Ion Exchange
- Ozonolysis
- Volatilization
- Electrodeposition
- Magnetic Separation
- Engineering Challenges to Separations
- Handling And Drying Of Sludges And Slurries
- Evaporators
- Extractors
- Engineering Opportunities
- Summary
- References
- Appendix E Defense Wastes—Additional Information
- Hanford Disposal Costs For High-Level Waste Canisters
- Canister Preparation
- Canister Disposal
- Savannah River Site Plans For A Defense Waste Processing Facility
- DWPF Process Description
- Waste Processing In Tank Farms
- Precipitate Processing
- Sludge Processing And Adjustment
- Waste Form Production
- Interim Storage
- Ultimate Storage
- Comments on the DWPF Process
- References
- Selected Bibliography
- Appendix F Transmutation Concepts
- Advanced Liquid-Metal Reactor
- Introduction
- Reference ALMR Designs
- Transmutation Performance Requirements
- Transmutation Performance
- Facilities and Support Requirements
- Risk and Safety Issues
- State of the Technology
- Almr Fuel
- Reactor Dynamics And Safety Parameters
- Fuel Fabrication Facilities
- Reprocessing
- Steam Generators
- Demonstration
- Cost Information
- The Light-Water Reactor
- Plutonium Recycle in LWRs
- Reference Designs
- Self-Generated Recycle With Transuranics
- Dedicated LWR Transuranic Burners
- Advanced LWR Designs
- Transmutation Performance Requirements
- Facilities and Support Requirements
- Reprocessing Requirements
- Fuel Fabrication Requirements
- Residual Waste Management and Environmental Impacts
- State Of The Technology
- Reactor Control Absorber And Reactivity Control Issues
- Fuel Fabrication And Performance Verification Issues
- Risk And Safety Issues
- Cost Information
- Development Costs
- System Costs
- The Los Alamos Accelerator Transmutation Of Waste
- Reference Design for ATW System
- Performance Requirements
- ATW Concepts
- Accelerator
- Target System
- Blanket Assembly
- Chemical Processing
- ATW Systems
- ATW-1
- Atw 2, 3, And 4
- Nonaqueous Reprocessing Of Law Spent Fuel
- Reprocessing At The Nonaqueous Atw
- Power Production Facilities
- Waste Management Facilities
- Safety Issues and Reactivity Control
- Accelerator Safety
- Target Materials Issues
- Emergency Cooling
- Reactivity Excursions
- Fluid-Fuel Boundary-Layer Heating
- Pressure-Tube Failure
- Explosive Gases From Radiolytic Decomposition
- Comparative Thermal-To-Electrical Efficiencies
- Operations Of ATW-1 As a Just-Critical Reactor Without Accelerator
- State of the Technology
- Accelerator System
- Physics Issues
- Aqueous Atw-1
- Nonaqueous ATW
- Target Materials
- Blanket Assembly
- Materials Development
- Chemical Processing
- Cost and Schedule
- The Particle Bed Reactor Concept
- Reference Designs
- Transmutation Performance Requirements
- Facilities and Support Requirements
- Residual Waste Management and Environmental Impacts
- Safety and Risk Considerations
- State of Technology
- Cost Information
- Development Costs
- Systems Costs
- The Accelerator-Based Phoenix Concept
- Reference Design
- Transmutation Performance Requirements
- Facilities and Support Requirements
- Residual Waste Management and Environmental Impact
- Risk and Safety Analysis
- State of Technology
- Costs
- Development Costs
- Systems Costs And Economics
- References
- Appendix G Effects on Repository
- Background Information On Repository Performance
- Repository Design and Operation
- Long-Term Performance Assessment
- Basis For Evaluation
- Approach To Evaluate Performance
- Impact of Transmutation
- Thermal Effects
- Effect Of S&T On Thermal Power Of Waste
- Consequences Of Altered Waste Thermal Attributes To Repository Capacity
- Consequences Of Altered Waste Thermal Attributes To Long-Term Repository Performance
- Long Term Performance Effects
- Important Radionuclides Of The Reference Once-Through Uranium Fuel Cycle Impacting Water Pathways And Individual Dose
- Important Radionuclides Contributing To Long-Term Individual Doses From Intrusion Scenarios For The Reference Once-Through…
- The Reference Once-Through Uranium Fuel Cycle: Preliminary Estimates Of Conformance With Technical Containment Limits of…
- Individual Doses From Transmutation Fuel Cycles
- Effect Of Transmutation On Meeting The Technical Containment Limits Of The EPA Standard 40Cfr191
- Summary And Conclusions
- References
- Appendix H Nuclear Proliferation Issues
- Introduction
- Scope and Organization
- The LWR Once-Through Fuel Cycle as the Nonproliferation Baseline
- Nonproliferation Policy And International Safeguards
- Overview of Safeguards Concepts
- Safeguards Under the NPT
- Creeping Proliferation and the Effect on Nuclear Policies
- The Crisis in Safeguards Credibility
- The Covert Iraqi Nuclear Weapons Program
- The Current Safeguards Stalemate In North Korea
- The Status of Proliferation Barriers and the U.S. Counterproliferation Initiative
- Strengthening Safeguards
- Recent U.S. Policy on Nonproliferation and the Use of Plutonium
- Assessment Of Proliferation Issues For S&T Systems
- Reprocessing
- Enrichment
- Reactors
- Summary of Proliferation Issues for the Four Cases
- Case 1: Integral Fast Reactor Breeder/Burner
- Case 2: Baseline Accelerator Transmutation Of Waste
- Case 3: Advanced Accelerator Transmutation of Waste
- Case 4: Hybrid Almr/Lwr System
- References
- Appendix I Health And Safety
- Introduction
- Discussion of Concepts
- ATW
- Accelerator (Phoenix)
- ALMR/IFR
- LWR
- PBR
- CURE
- Base Case
- Conclusions
- Risk And Safety Summaries: Radioactive Waste Treatment Concepts
- Concept: Accelerator Transmutation of Radioactive Waste (ATW)
- Concept: Accelerator (Phoenix)
- Concept: Advanced Liquid Metal Reactor (ALMR)/Integral Fast Reactor (IFR)
- Concept: Light-Water Reactors (LWRs)
- Concept: PBR
- Concept: Clean Use of Reactor Energy (CURE)
- Concept: Base Case (civilian/military)
- References
- Appendix J Fuel Reprocessing Economics
- Introduction
- Historical Perspective
- Relative Economics of Reprocessing Versus Once-Through Fuel Cycle
- Principal Issues in Determining Whether to Adopt Reprocessing and Transmutation as a Waste Managemen Strategy
- Reprocessing-Plant Capital Costs
- Capital Costs Associated With Reprocessing Plant Projects
- Thermal Oxide Reprocessing Plant (Thorp)
- UP3
- Rokkashomura Plant
- Capital Costs Associated With Reprocessing Plant Studies
- Summary of Estimates of Capital Cost
- Interest During Construction
- Capital Cost Uncertainties
- Foreign Exchange Rates
- Labor Productivity
- Start-Up Costs
- Reprocessing-Plant Operating Costs
- Financing of Reprocessing/Transmutation Reactor Facilities
- Private Venture
- Utility-Owned, TRU-Burning Nuclear Power Plant
- Government-Owned Facility
- Hybrid Organization
- Government Ownership—The Only Alternative
- Estimated Unit Costs of LWR Reprocessing
- Comparison With Published Reprocessing Prices
- Comparison with Oecd/Nea Breakeven Reprocessing Price
- Reprocessing-Cost Sensitivity Studies
- Potential Savings For Nth-of-a-Kind Plants
- Threshold Cost of LWR Fuel Reprocessing For ALMR Use
- ANL Estimates of the Cost of Pyrochemical Reprocessing of ALMR Recycle Fuel
- Historical Cost Growth on Projects Employing Advanced Technologies
- Summary and Conclusions
- References
- Appendix K Summary of International Separations and Transmutation Activities
- Programs Of Individual Nations
- China (OECD/NEA, 1990)
- Czech and Slovak Federal Republic (OECD/NEA, 1990)
- France
- Germany
- India (OECD/NEA, 1990)
- Italy (OECD/NEA, 1990)
- Japan
- Korea (OECD/NEA, 1990)
- Netherlands
- Russia
- Sweden
- Switzerland
- United Kingdom
- United States
- International Organizations
- The Commission of the European Communities (CEC)
- International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) of the United Nations
- OECD/NEA
- Observations
- References
- Appendix L Interim Report of the Committee on Separations Technology and Transmutation Systems
- Interim Report of the Panel on Separations Technology and Transmutation Systems
- Contents
- Foreword
- The Advanced Liquid Metal Reactor (ALMR) as an Actinide Burner
- Is a breeder program, viable on its own merits, a prerequisite to an actinide burning ALMR program?
- What could be achieved by actinide burning and on what time scale?
- What would be the effect on the radiation-induced health risks?
- What licensing or regulatory problems may be encountered?
- How would actinide burning affect the need and schedule for the first geological repository?
- What are the costs of actinide burning?
- Summary
- References
- Panel on Separations Technology and Transmutation Systems
- Staff
- Separations Technology and Transmutation Systems Subpanel on Separation
- Separations Technology and Transmutation Systems Subpanel on Transmutation
- Separations Technology and Transmutation Systems Subpanel on Integration
- Appendix M Biographies of Committee and Subcommittee Members
- Appendix N Glossary of Terms
- Appendix O Acronyms And Abbreviations
- Appendix P General Bibliography
- Index
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