The U.S. census, conducted every 10 years since 1790, faces dramatic new challenges as the country begins its third century. Critics of the 1990 census cited problems of increasingly high costs, continued racial differences in counting the population, and declining public confidence.
This volume provides a major review of the traditional U.S. census. Starting from the most basic questions of how data are used and whether they are needed, the volume examines the data that future censuses should provide. It evaluates several radical proposals that have been made for changing the census, as well as other proposals for redesigning the year 2000 census. The book also considers in detail the much-criticized long form, the role of race and ethnic data, and the need for and ways to obtain small-area data between censuses.
- Modernizing the U.S. Census
- Copyright
- Acknowledgments
- Contents
- Preface
- Summary
- OVERALL CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATION
- A REDESIGNED CENSUS
- Statistical Estimation
- Improving Response
- Reducing Costs
- Support for the New Design
- CENSUS CONTENT AND THE LONG FORM
- DATA ON RACE AND ETHNICITY
- SOME RADICAL ALTERNATIVES TO THE CENSUS
- A National Register
- An Administrative Records Census
- A Census Conducted by the U.S. Postal Service
- A Sample or Rolling Census
- INTERCENSAL SMALL-AREA DATA
- 1 The Role of the Census
- OVERVIEW OF THE REPORT
- THE NEED FOR CENSUS DATA
- Data Needs for Reapportionment and Redistricting
- Other Data Needs
- Federal Agency Needs for Census Data
- Needs of Other Data Users
- Conclusion About Data Needs
- CRITERIA FOR EVALUATING APPROACHES TO THE CENSUS
- NOTES
- 2 Population Coverage and Its Implications
- COVERAGE ESTIMATES
- Coverage Errors
- Undercount by Subgroups
- Errors in Small-Area Data
- IMPLICATIONS OF UNDERENUMERATION
- Effects on Congressional Apportionment
- Effects on Distribution of Federal Funds
- NOTES
- 3 Census Cost Increases and Their Causes
- GENERAL FACTORS
- SPECIFIC FACTORS AND MARGINAL COSTS
- Census Content
- Changes in Population and Housing
- Mail Response Rates
- Other Factors
- Census Cost Changes
- Census Staff Productivity
- SUMMARY
- NOTES
- 4 Radical Alternatives
- A NATIONAL REGISTER FOR THE BASIC CENSUS
- AN ADMINISTRATIVE RECORDS CENSUS
- A CENSUS CONDUCTED BY THE U.S. POSTAL SERVICE
- A ROLLING OR SAMPLE CENSUS
- NOTES
- 5 A Redesigned Census
- TWO APPROACHES TO COUNTING THE POPULATION
- Census Bureau Plans
- Legal Issues of Statistical Estimation
- BASIC ELEMENTS OF A NEW CENSUS DESIGN
- Decreasing the Intensity of Nonresponse Follow-Up
- Sampling for Nonresponse Follow-Up
- Truncation of Enumeration After a Reasonable Effort
- Alternative Techniques of Truncation
- What Determines a Reasonable Effort
- Survey-Based Methods to Complete the Count
- ADDITIONAL MEASURES TO IMPROVE ACCURACY AND REDUCE COSTS
- Improve Response Rates
- A Simplified Questionnaire Design
- Respondent-Friendly Long Forms and the Use of Appeals
- Partnerships with State and Local Governments
- Partnership with the U.S. Postal Service
- Current Role
- Expanded Role
- A REENGINEERED CENSUS
- BUILDING PUBLIC SUPPORT
- 6 Census Content
- THE PROCESS FOR DETERMINING CENSUS CONTENT
- THE LONG FORM
- Costs
- Mail Return Rates
- Effects in 1980 and 1990
- Experiments to Improve Response
- Conclusions
- Coverage
- Matrix Sampling
- CONTINUOUS MEASUREMENT
- Costs
- Cost Savings from Dropping the Long Form
- Continuous Measurement Cost Estimates
- Missing Cost Data
- Other Cost Savings
- Data Quality
- Conceptual Issues with Cumulated Data
- Relation to Other Household Surveys
- Alternative Ways to Provide Small-Area Data
- Conclusions
- CONCLUSIONS: CONTENT IN THE 2000 CENSUS
- NOTES
- 7 Data on Race and Ethnicity
- HISTORICAL CONTEXT
- CURRENT REQUIREMENTS
- FUTURE REQUIREMENTS
- CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
- NOTES
- 8 Intercensal Small-Area Data
- NEEDS FOR SMALL-AREA DATA
- Timeliness
- Past Attempts to Produce Intercensal Small-Area Data
- ASSESSMENT OF CURRENT METHODS
- Mid-Decade Censuses
- New and Special Surveys
- Augmenting Existing Surveys
- Model-Based Estimates
- ADMINISTRATIVE RECORDS
- A GEOGRAPHIC REFERENCE SYSTEM AND UPDATED ADDRESS FILE
- INTERAGENCY DATA SHARING
- CONCLUSION
- NOTES
- References
- Appendices
- APPENDIX A Basic Information on Census Questionnaires
- SHORT-FORM AND LONG-FORM QUESTIONNAIRE CONTENT
- QUESTIONNAIRE RECEIPT AND RESPONSE
- NOTE
- REFERENCE
- APPENDIX B The Census Process
- DEVELOPMENT OF MAILING LIST (MASTER ADDRESS CONTROL FILE)
- COLLECTING THE DATA
- FIELD OPERATIONS (OPENING OF OFFICES)
- 1990 FIELD OPERATION—FOLLOW-UP
- Mail Return
- Nonresponse Follow-Up
- Field Follow-Up
- OTHER COVERAGE IMPROVEMENTS
- LOCAL REVIEW
- POST-ENUMERATION SURVEY
- NOTES
- REFERENCES
- APPENDIX C Data Requirements for Reapportionment and Redistricting
- REAPPORTIONMENT
- The Role of Sampling
- Role of Administrative Records
- REDISTRICTING ON THE BASIS OF TOTAL POPULATION
- Legal Foundations
- Census Data for Redistricting
- Required Level of Geographic Detail
- Role of Sampling and Administrative Records
- REDISTRICTING ON THE BASIS OF RACIAL OR ETHNIC COMPOSITION
- Legal History
- Role of the Census
- NOTES
- REFERENCES
- APPENDIX D Research Uses of Census Data
- RESEARCH VALUE
- Forms of Census Data
- Advantages of PUMS Files
- Examples of Research
- Aging of the Population
- Race Relations
- Education
- Concentrated Poverty
- Global Change
- DEVELOPMENT OF CENSUS MICRODATA FILES
- Development of PUMS Files
- Development of Summary Tape Files
- Historical Census Files
- ACCESS TO CENSUS DATA
- Role of the Inter-University Consortium for Political and Social Research
- Underutilization
- Online Access
- NOTES
- REFERENCES
- APPENDIX E State and Local Needs for Census Data
- USES OF CENSUS DATA: AN OVERVIEW
- CENSUS DATA CATEGORIES
- General Demographic Data
- Race, Hispanic Origin, and Ancestry
- Immigration: Citizenship, Year of Entry, and Language
- Labor Force and Occupation
- Education: School Enrollment and Highest Grade Completed
- Disability
- Transportation
- Income and Poverty
- Housing
- USES OF CENSUS DATA
- Uses of Census Data for State and Federal Legislative Requirements
- Uses of Census Data for State and Federal Grants Applications
- Uses of Census Data for Public Health and Social Service Programs
- Uses of Census Data for Community Planning and Development
- School Districts
- Law Enforcement
- Library Services
- Emergency Planning
- Uses of Census Data for Environmental Planning
- Economic Uses of Census Data: Employment, Labor Force, and Economic Development Analyses
- SMALL-AREA DATA NEEDS FOR GEOGRAPHICALLY DETAILED DATA
- CONCLUSIONS
- APPENDIX F Business Uses of Census Data
- RETAIL AND RESTAURANT
- BANKS AND OTHER FINANCIAL INSTITUTIONS
- MEDIA AND ADVERTISING
- INSURANCE COMPANIES
- UTILITY COMPANIES
- HEALTH CARE PROVIDERS
- NONPROFIT ORGANIZATIONS
- OTHER USERS
- REFERENCES
- APPENDIX G Use of Decennial Census Data in Transportation Planning
- HISTORY OF TRANSPORTATION QUESTIONS IN THE CENSUS
- THE 1990 CENSUS
- THE URBAN TRANSPORTATION PLANNING PACKAGE (UTTP)
- Use of the 1980 UTPP Data—A Case Study
- Summary
- DIFFERENCES BETWEEN CENSUS AND TRAVEL SURVEY DATA
- Journey-to-Work Adjustments
- Problems Inherent in Census Data
- Positive Aspects of Census Data
- USE OF DECENNIAL CENSUS DATA BY TRANSPORTATION PLANNING AGENCIES
- RELATIONSHIP OF CENSUS DATA TO LEGISLATIVE REQUIREMENTS
- Intermodal Surface Transportation Efficiency Act Legislative Requirements
- Comprehensive Planning Provisions
- Transportation Improvement Program: Project Selection
- Traffic Congestion Management
- Corridor Preservation
- Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990 Legislative Requirements
- Other Legislative Requirements
- STATE AND LOCAL USES
- COST AND FEASIBILITY OF REPLACING CENSUS TRANSPORTATION DATA
- NOTE
- REFERENCES
- APPENDIX H Census Data Needs for Housing and Urban Development
- FEDERAL LEGISLATIVE AND CENSUS DATA REQUIREMENTS
- Small-Area Geographic Detail
- Census Content
- Population Counts
- Housing
- Income and Poverty
- Labor Market Information
- Mobility, Health, Ethnicity, and Language
- Homeless Population
- PROGRAM USES OF CENSUS DATA
- Comprehensive Housing Affordability Strategies
- Housing Policy Development
- Analysis, Development, and Evaluation of Urban Policy Initiatives
- Urban Poverty, Need, and Economic Trends
- Housing and Neighborhoods
- Urban Programs
- ALTERNATIVE SOURCES OF CENSUS DATA
- PRIORITIES FOR HOUSING DATA
- Data From Future Censuses
- Improving Data on the Condition of Housing Structures
- Outdated and Too Little Data
- Additional Decennial Census Questions
- Data for Small Areas
- CONSEQUENCES OF NOT COLLECTING CENSUS DATA
- NOTE
- REFERENCES
- APPENDIX I Alternative Ways to Produce Intercensal Small-Area Data
- QUALIFIED MILITARY POPULATION
- EMPLOYMENT ESTIMATES
- State Estimates
- Substate Estimates
- INCOME AND POVERTY
- Income
- Methodology
- Estimation Models
- Time Frame
- Poverty
- MIGRANT AND SEASONAL FARMWORKERS
- Limitations of Census Data
- A National Sample Survey
- NOTES
- REFERENCES
- APPENDIX J Content and Quality of Federal and State Administrative Records
- FEDERAL FILES
- STATE FILES
- REFERENCES
- APPENDIX K Quality of Current Data on Race and Ethnicity
- REQUIREMENTS FOR RACE AND ETHNICITY DATA SINCE 1970
- COLLECTION OF RACE AND ETHNICITY DATA IN THE CENSUS
- ALLOCATION RATES
- MEASURES OF INCONSISTENCY
- LIMITATIONS OF THE RACE AND HISPANIC ORIGIN QUESTIONS
- LIMITATIONS OF THE ANCESTRY QUESTION
- STRENGTHS OF THE RACE AND ANCESTRY QUESTIONS
- NOTES
- REFERENCES
- APPENDIX L Allocation Rates
- ALLOCATION RATES FOR SHORT-FORM POPULATION ITEMS BY FORM TYPE
- ALLOCATION RATES ON LONG FORMS BY RESPONSE TYPE
- ALLOCATION RATES ON LONG FORMS BY RACE AND GEOGRAPHIC RESIDENCE
- REFERENCE
- NOTES
- APPENDIX M Census Data Requirements by Federal Agencies
- APPENDIX N Groups and Individuals Consulted
- LEGISLATIVE BRANCH
- Congressional Research Service
- Congressional Committees
- General Accounting Office
- Members of Congress
- EXECUTIVE BRANCH
- Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census
- Department of Health and Human Services, National Center for Health Statistics
- Department of Housing and Urban Development
- Department of Labor
- Department of Transportation
- Department of Treasury, Internal Revenue Service
- Office of Management and Budget
- 2000 Census Advisory Committee
- INDIVIDUALS
- ASSOCIATIONS
- MINORITY ORGANIZATIONS
- FARMWORKER ORGANIZATIONS
- HOUSING ORGANIZATIONS
- CITY REPRESENTATIVES
- STATE DATA CENTERS
- APPENDIX O Biographical Sketches
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