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Art and Witchcraft in Early Modern Italy

Art and Witchcraft in Early Modern Italy

The figure of the witch is familiar from the work of early modern German, Dutch, and Flemish artists, but much less so in the work of their Italian counterparts. Art and Witchcraft in Early Modern Italy seeks to explore the ways in which representations of witchcraft emerged from and coincided with the main cultural currents and artistic climate of an epoch chiefly celebrated for its humanistic and rational approaches. Through an in-depth examination of a panoply of arresting paintings, engravings, and drawings—variously portraying a hag-ridden colossal phallus, a horror-stricken necromancer dodging the devil’s scrabbling claws, and a nocturnal procession presided over by an infanticidal crone—Guy Tal offers new ways of reading witchcraft images through and beyond conventional iconography. Artists such as Parmigianino, Alessandro Allori, Leonello Spada, and Angelo Caroselli effected visual commentaries on demonological notions that engaged their audience in a tantalizing experience of interpretation.
  • Cover
  • Table of Contents
    • Acknowledgments
    • Introduction
    • 1. Old Women under Investigation
      • The Drab Housewife and the Grotesque Hag
    • 2. Chimerical Procession
      • The Poetics of Inversion and Monstrosity
    • 3. Priapic Ride
      • Gigantic Genitals, Penile Theft, and Other Phallic Fantasies
    • 4. Magical Metamorphoses
      • Variations on the Myths of Circe and Medea
    • 5. A Visit from the Devil
      • Horror and Liminality in Caravaggesque Paintings
    • Epilogue
    • Bibliography
    • Index
  • List of Illustrations
    • Figure 1. Jacopo de’ Barbari, A Naked Old Woman Riding on a Triton, 1495–1516, engraving, 10.2 × 11.7 cm. Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam.
    • Figure 2. Dosso Dossi, A Sorceress, ca. 1518–20, oil on canvas, 176 × 174 cm. Galleria Borghese, Rome. Photo: Bridgeman Images.
    • Figure 3. Parmigianino, Old Woman with a Distaff, 1530s, pen and brown ink, 18.7 × 13.4 cm. Collection of the Duke of Devonshire, Chatsworth. Photo: Chatsworth Settlement Trustees / Bridgeman Images.
    • Figure 4. Enea Vico da Parma, after Parmigianino, Old Woman with a Distaff, 1543–44, engraving, 22 × 14.8 cm. Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam.
    • Figure 5. Albrecht Dürer, Witch Riding on a Goat, ca. 1500, engraving, 11.7 × 7.1 cm. The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York.
    • Figure 6. Baccio Baldini, Hostanes, ca. 1455–65, pen and brown ink and brown wash over black chalk, 32.6 × 22.6 cm., in The Florentine Picture Chronicle. London, British Museum. Photo © The Trustees of the British Museum.
    • Figure 7. The Innkeeper, woodcut, in Jacobus de Cessolis, Giuoco di Scacchi, Florence, 1493–94. MAK – Museum of Applied Arts, Vienna. Photo © MAK.
    • Figure 8. Monogrammist DWF, after Enea Vico, Old Woman with a Distaff, ca. 1550–58, engraving, 19.8 × 17.8 cm. Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam.
    • Figure 9. Leonello Spada, Witch Pursuing after a Young Man, a letter of February 14, 1620, pen and black ink, 30.7 × 21 cm. Windsor Castle. Photo: Royal Collection Trust / © His Majesty King Charles III 2023.
    • Figure 10. Orazio Borgianni, Potiphar’s Wife Lusting after Joseph, 1615, etching, copy of the fresco by the school of Raphael in the Vatican Logge, 15 × 18.3 cm. Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam.
    • Figure 11. Antonio Tempesta, Circe Changing Picus into a Bird, etching, 10.9 × 12.3 cm., in Metamorphoseon Ovidianarum, Amsterdam, 1606, 136. The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York.
    • Figure 12. Caravaggio, Fortune-Teller, 1594, oil on canvas, 93 × 131 cm. Musée du Louvre, Paris. Photo: Bridgeman Images.
    • Figure 13. Wenceslaus Hollar, after Leonardo da Vinci, A Young Man Caressing an Old Woman, 1646, etching, 17 × 13 cm. The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York.
    • Figure 14. Guercino, A Witch, Two Bats, and a Demon in Flight, pen and brown ink with brown wash on laid paper, 11.7 × 25.7 cm. Art Gallery of Ontario, Toronto. Photo © Art Gallery of Ontario / Purchased as a gift of the Trier-Fodor Foundation, 1986 / Bri
    • Figure 15. Guercino, Three Bathers Surprised by a Monster, ca. 1620–25, pen and black ink, 16.2 × 25.7 cm. Windsor Castle. Photo: Royal Collection Trust / © His Majesty King Charles III 2023.
    • Figure 16. Guercino, A Monstrous Animal and a Peasant, 1620–30, pen, ink, and brown wash, 15.1 × 22.2 cm. Walker Art Gallery, Liverpool. Photo © National Museums Liverpool / Bridgeman Images.
    • Figure 17. Marcantonio Raimondi or Agostino Veneziano, after Giulio Romano (?), Lo stregozzo, 1520s, engraving, 30.3 × 64.5 cm. Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam.
    • Figure 18. Lo stregozzo, detail.
    • Figure 19. Jusepe de Ribera (?), Lo stregozzo, 1640s, oil on copper, 34.3 × 65.5 cm. Wellington Museum, London. Photo © Historic England / Bridgeman Images.
    • Figure 20. Michelangelo, The Creation of Sun, Moon, and Planets, 1508–12, fresco. Sistine Chapel, Vatican, Rome. Photo: Alinari / Bridgeman Images.
    • Figure 21. Anonymous artist, after an engraving of Marcantonio Raimondi’s Position 9 from I modi (drawn by Giulio Romano), 1550s, woodcut, in “Toscanini volume,” f. B2, image size: 6 × 6.5 cm. Private collection, Milan. Photo © Christie’s Images / Bridgem
    • Figure 22. Giulio Romano, Apollo and Diana, 1527, fresco. Camera del Sole e della Luna, Palazzo del Te, Mantua. Photo: Ghigo Roli / Bridgeman Images.
    • Figure 23. Giulio Romano and others, The Battle of the Milvian Bridge, 1519–24, fresco. Sala di Costantino, Vatican Palace, Rome. Photo © Stefano Baldini / Bridgeman Images.
    • Figure 24. Marcantonio Raimondi, after Raphael, The Massacre of the Innocents, ca. 1511–12, engraving, 28 × 42.6 cm. Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam.
    • Figure 25. Raphael, Fire in the Borgo, ca. 1514–17, fresco. Stanza dell’Incendio, Vatican Palace, Rome. Photo © Stefano Baldini / Bridgeman Images.
    • Figure 26. Aristotile da Sangallo, after Michelangelo’s cartoon, Battle of Cascina, 1542, oil on panel, 76.4 × 130.2 cm. Holkham Hall, Norfolk. Photo: By permission of the Earl of Leicester and the Trustees of the Holkham Estate / Bridgeman Images.
    • Figure 27. Andrea Mantegna, Battle of the Sea Gods, ca. 1475–80, engraving from two plates, 28.5 × 43 cm. (left) and 28.6 × 37.5 cm. (right). The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York.
    • Figure 28. Hans Baldung Grien, Preparation for the Witches’ Sabbath, 1510, chiaroscuro woodcut, 36.6 × 25.9 cm. The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York.
    • Figure 29. Master HFE, Marine Gods, ca. 1530s, engraving, 17.1 × 39.8 cm. Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam.
    • Figure 30. Accursio Baldi and Bastiano Marsili, after Raffaello Gualterotti, A Dragon Chasing after a Witch on a Chimera, in Feste nelle nozza del Serenissimo Don Francesco Medici gran duca di Toscana et della Sereniss sua consorte la Sig. Bianca Cappello
    • Figure 31. Girolamo da Carpi (attr.), Landscape with Magic Procession, 1528, oil on canvas, 159 × 116 cm. Galleria Borghese, Rome. Photo © Electa / Bridgeman Images.
    • Figure 32. Robert Mapplethorpe, Louise Bourgeois Holding ‘Fillette’, 1982, photograph, 37.5 × 37.4 cm. Photo © Robert Mapplethorpe Foundation. Used by permission.
    • Figure 33. Anonymous, after Parmigianino, A Witch Riding on a Phallus, 1530s, etching, 14.5 × 9.7 cm. British Museum, London. Photo © The Trustees of the British Museum.
    • Figure 34. Bernard Picart, after Parmigianino, A Witch Riding on a Phallus, etching, second state, in Bernard Picart, Impostures innocentes, ou Recueil d’Estampes d’aprés divers peintres, Amsterdam, 1734, no. 12. Photo © The Trustees of the British Museum
    • Figure 35. Jacopo Caraglio, after Parmigianino, Adoration of the Shepherds, 1526, engraving, 20.9 × 24 cm. Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam.
    • Figure 36. Parmigianino, Entombment of Christ, etching, 31.4 × 23.9 cm. Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam.
    • Figure 37. Parmigianino, after Marcantonio Raimondi’s Modi, Two Lovers, pen and brown ink, 13.1 × 15.2 cm. Private collection. Photo © Christie’s Images / Bridgeman Images.
    • Figure 38. Parmigianino, Lovers, etching and engraving, 14.7 × 10.4 cm. Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam.
    • Figure 39. Parmigianino, The Lower Part of Two Male Nudes, 1535–40, pen and brown ink, 19 × 8.9 cm. Musée du Louvre, Paris. Photo © RMN-Grand Palais / Art Resource, NY.
    • Figure 40. Anonymous artist, after an engraving of Marcantonio Raimondi’s Position 14 from I modi (drawn by Giulio Romano), 1550s, woodcut, in “Toscanini volume,” f. B4v, image size: 6 × 6.5 cm. Photo © Christie’s Images / Bridgeman Images.
    • Figure 41. German School, Melancholy, woodcut, in the German Almanac, Augsburg, 1484. The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York.
    • Figure 42. Three Female Witches on a Night Ride, woodcut, in Johann Geiler von Kaysersberg, Die Emeis, Strasbourg, 1517, 37v. Division of Rare and Manuscript Collections, Cornell University Library.
    • Figure 43. Harmen Jansz. Muller, after Maarten van Heemskerck, The Melancholy Temperament, 1566, engraving, 21.5 × 23.7 cm. Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam.
    • Figure 44. Giovanni Nicolò Miretto and Stefano da Ferrara, Saturn, the Melancholic, and Mercenary Love with a Woman on Top, 1425–40, fresco. Great Hall, Palazzo della Ragione, Padua. Photo: Alinari Archives, Florence.
    • Figure 45. Devil Seducing a Witch, woodcut, in Ulrich Molitor, De Lamiis et pythonicis mulieribus, Basel, ca. 1495, 1v. Division of Rare and Manuscript Collections, Cornell University Library.
    • Figure 46. Woman Astride a Phallus, ca. 1400–1425, badge, tin and lead alloy, 2.5 × 2.2 cm. Musée Cluny, Paris. Photo © RMN-Grand Palais / Art Resource, NY.
    • Figure 47. Northern Italian, A Scene of Copulation, ca. 1480–1500, verso of a copper engraving plate, 15 × 22.4 cm. National Gallery of Art, Washington, DC.
    • Figure 48. Roman amulet pendant, 2nd century CE, gold, pearls, and amethyst, 3.1 × 1.8 cm. The Johns Hopkins Archaeological Museum, Baltimore. Photo: James T. VanRensselaer.
    • Figure 49. Bernardino Detti, Madonna of the Pergola (detail), 1523, tempera on panel, 213 × 164 cm. Museo Civico, Pistoia. Photo: Alinari Archives, Florence.
    • Figure 50. Francisco Goya, A Fine Teacher!, plate 68 of the Caprichos, 1799, etching and aquatint, 21 × 15 cm. Rosenwald Collection, National Gallery of Art, Washington, DC.
    • Figure 51. Francisco Goya, We Must Be off with the Dawn, plate 71 of the Caprichos, 1799, etching and aquatint, 19.8 × 14.9 cm. Rosenwald Collection, National Gallery of Art, Washington, DC.
    • Figure 52. Alessandro Allori and collaborators, Ulysses and Circe, ca. 1575–76, fresco. Cortile degli Imperatori, Palazzo Salviati, Florence. Photo: Alfredo Dagli Orti / Art Resource, NY.
    • Figure 53. Giovanni Stradano, Ulysses and Circe, 1562, fresco. Sala di Penelope, Palazzo Vecchio, Florence. Photo: Scala / Art Resource, NY.
    • Figure 54. Pseudo-Caroselli, Melancholic Circe, oil on canvas, 55 × 79 cm. Museo Statale d’Arte Medievale e Moderna, Arezzo. Photo: The Picture Art Collection / Alamy Stock Photo.
    • Figure 55. Pseudo-Caroselli, Circe and Melancholic Ulysses, oil on canvas, 55 × 79 cm. Museo Statale d’Arte Medievale e Moderna, Arezzo. Photo: The Picture Art Collection / Alamy Stock Photo.
    • Figure 56. Giovanni Benedetto Castiglione, Melancholic Circe Transforming Men into Beasts, ca. 1645–55, pen and brown ink, 19.8 × 28 cm. Hessisches Landesmuseum, Darmstadt. Photo: Wolfgang Fuhrmannek.
    • Figure 57. Giovanni Benedetto Castiglione, Melancholic Circe Transforming Men into Beasts, ca. 1650–55, etching, 21.2 × 30.4 cm. Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam.
    • Figure 58. Giovanni Benedetto Castiglione, Melancholia, ca. 1645–46, etching, 21.6 × 11.2 cm. Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam.
    • Figure 59. Giovanni Benedetto Castiglione, Vanitas/Melancholia, pen and brown ink and wash on buff paper, 22.2 × 34.3 cm. Windsor Castle. Photo: Royal Collection Trust / © His Majesty King Charles III 2023.
    • Figure 60. Antonio Tempesta, Circe Transforming Ulysses’s Men into Swine, etching, 10.5 × 11.5 cm., in Metamorphoseon Ovidianarum, Amsterdam, 1606, 135. The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York.
    • Figure 61. Pellegrino Tibaldi, Circe and Ulysses, 1550–51, fresco. Sala di Ulisse, Palazzo Poggi, Bologna. Photo: Ghigo Roli / Bridgeman Images.
    • Figure 62. Pellegrino Tibaldi, The Odyssey ceiling, 1550–51, fresco. Sala di Ulisse, Palazzo Poggi, Bologna. Photo: Ghigo Roli / Bridgeman Images.
    • Figure 63. Michelangelo, Tomb of Giuliano de’ Medici with Day and Night, 1524–34, marble. New Sacristy, San Lorenzo, Florence. Photo © Nicolò Orsi Battaglini / Bridgeman Images.
    • Figure 64. Tibaldi, Circe and Ulysses, detail.
    • Figure 65. Annibale Carracci (attr.), Circe Transforming Men into Beasts, ca. 1600, pen and brown ink and brown wash, heightened with white, over red chalk, on cream paper, 30 × 36.2 cm. Windsor Castle. Photo: Royal Collection Trust / © His Majesty King C
    • Figure 66. Girolamo Macchietti, Medea Rejuvenating Aeson, ca. 1570–72, oil on panel, 152 × 83 cm. Studiolo of Francesco I de’ Medici, Palazzo Vecchio, Florence. Photo © NPL – DeA Picture Library / G. Nimatallah / Bridgeman Images.
    • Figure 67. René Boyvin, after Léonard Thiry, Medea Rejuvenating Aeson, engraving, in Livre de la conqueste de la Toison d’Or, Paris, 1563, plate 21. Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam.
    • Figure 68. Jacopo Caraglio, after Perino del Vaga, Jupiter in the Guise of a Satyr Observing Antiope, 1527, engraving from Gli amori degli dei, 21.1 × 13.5 cm. Szépművészeti Múzeum (Museum of Fine Arts), Budapest.
    • Figure 69. Francesco Morandini, Prometheus Receiving a Piece of Quartz from Nature, 1570, fresco. Studiolo of Francesco I de’ Medici, Palazzo Vecchio, Florence. Photo © Alinari Archives / Art Resource, NY.
    • Figure 70. Bernard Salomon, Medea Rejuvenating Aeson, woodcut, in La Métamorphose d’Ovide figurée, Lyon, 1557, 78. Photo: Private collection / Bridgeman Images.
    • Figure 71. Ludovico, Annibale, and Agostino Carracci, Medea Rejuvenating Aeson, 1584, fresco. Sala di Giasone, Palazzo Fava, Bologna. Photo: Mondadori Portfolio / Electa / Antonio Guerra / Bridgeman Images.
    • Figure 72. Medea Rejuvenating Aeson, woodcut, in Ovid’s Metamorphoses, Venice, 1538, 71v. Yale University Library.
    • Figure 73. Giovanni Battista Scultori (attr.), after Giulio Romano, Judith Beheading Holofernes, ca. 1540, engraving, 15.5 × 21.8 cm. The Albertina Museum, Vienna.
    • Figure 74. Ludovico, Annibale, and Agostino Carracci, Medea and Pelias’s Daughters, 1584, fresco. Sala di Giasone, Palazzo Fava, Bologna. Photo: Mondadori Portfolio / Electa / Sergio Anelli / Bridgeman Images.
    • Figure 75. Anton Maria Vassallo, Medea Rejuvenating Aeson, ca. 1641–45, oil on canvas, 51 × 68 cm. Corridoio Vasariano, Galleria degli Uffizi, Florence.
    • Figure 76. Johann Wilhelm Baur, Medea Rejuvenating Aeson, etching, in Ovid’s Metamorphoses, Vienna, 1641. Photo: Wellcome Collection.
    • Figure 77. Andries Stock (?), after Jacques de Gheyn II, The Preparation for the Witches’ Sabbath, ca. 1610, engraving, two plates, 43.5 × 65.8 cm. Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam.
    • Figure 78. Gioacchino Assereto, Medea Rejuvenating Aeson, 1644, oil on canvas, 316 × 210 cm. Palazzo Ayrolo-Negrone, Genoa. Photo: Antonio Gesino Archive, Genoa.
    • Figure 79. Gioacchino Assereto, Apollo Flaying Marsyas, 1644, oil on canvas, 318 × 210 cm. Palazzo Ayrolo-Negrone, Genoa. Photo: Antonio Gesino Archive, Genoa.
    • Figure 80. Johann Wilhelm Baur, Apollo Flaying Marsyas, etching, in Ovid’s Metamorphoses, Vienna, 1641. The New York Public Library.
    • Figure 81. Jusepe de Ribera, Apollo Flaying Marsyas, 1637, oil on canvas, 202 × 255 cm. Royal Museums of Fine Arts of Belgium, Brussels. Photo: The Picture Art Collection / Alamy Stock Photo.
    • Figure 82. Pseudo-Caroselli, Witch Alarmed by a Devil, ca. 1625, oil on canvas, 44 × 35 cm. Pinacoteca Civica Francesco Podesti, Ancona. Photo: Scala / Art Resource, NY.
    • Figure 83. Angelo Caroselli, Witch Alarmed by a Devil, ca. 1625, oil on panel, 65 × 61 cm. Private collection (formerly Maurizio Canesso Gallery, Paris). Photo: The Picture Art Collection / Alamy Stock Photo.
    • Figure 84. Pietro Paolini, Witch Alarmed by a Devil, early 1630s, oil on canvas, 70 × 93 cm. Cavallini-Sgarbi Collection, Ferrara. Photo: Maidun Collection / Alamy Stock Photo.
    • Figure 85. Pieter van Laer, Witch Alarmed by a Devil, late 1630s, oil on canvas, 80 × 115 cm. Leiden Collection, New York. Photo: courtesy of The Leiden Collection.
    • Figure 86. Witches Sacrificing an Infant to the Devil, woodcut, in Francesco Maria Guazzo, Compendium maleficarum, Milan, 1608. Division of Rare and Manuscript Collections, Cornell University Library.
    • Figure 87. The Devil Striking Witches out of the Book of Life, woodcut, in Francesco Maria Guazzo, Compendium maleficarum, Milan, 1608. Division of Rare and Manuscript Collections, Cornell University Library.
    • Figure 88. Caravaggio, Boy Bitten by a Lizard, ca. 1594, oil on canvas, 66 × 49.5 cm. National Gallery, London. Photo: Bridgeman Images.
    • Figure 89. Agostino Tassi, Landscape with a Scene of Witchcraft, ca. 1625, oil on canvas, 63.2 × 74.5 cm. The Walters Art Museum, Baltimore.
    • Figure 90. Titian, Saint Margaret and the Dragon, ca. 1565, oil on canvas, 209 × 183 cm. Museo Nacional del Prado, Madrid. Photo © Photographic Archive Museo Nacional del Prado.
    • Figure 91. Caravaggio, Martyrdom of St. Matthew, 1599–1600, oil on canvas, 323 × 343 cm. Contarelli Chapel, San Luigi dei Francesi, Rome. Photo © Raffaello Bencini / Bridgeman Images.
    • Figure 92. Caravaggio, Medusa, ca. 1598, oil on canvas on wooden shield, diameter 55 cm. Galleria degli Uffizi, Florence. Photo: Bridgeman Images.
    • Figure 93. Caravaggio, Taking of Christ, 1602–3, oil on canvas, 133.5 × 169.5 cm. National Gallery of Ireland, Dublin. Photo © Lawrence Steigrad Fine Arts, New York / Bridgeman Images.
    • Figure 94. Caravaggio, Calling of St. Matthew, 1599–1600, oil on canvas, 322 × 340 cm. Contarelli Chapel, San Luigi dei Francesi, Rome. Photo: Luisa Ricciarini / Bridgeman Images.
    • Figure 95. Bernardo Strozzi, Calling of St. Matthew, ca. 1620, oil on canvas, 139 × 187 cm. Worcester Art Museum. Photo © Worcester Art Museum / Bridgeman Images.
    • Figure 96. Nicolas Tournier, after Bartolomeo Manfredi, A Group of Revellers, ca. 1618–20, oil on canvas, 129 × 192 cm. Le musée de Tessé, Le Mans. Photo: Musée de Tessé / Bridgeman Images.
    • Figure 97. Daniel Hopfer, Death and the Devil Surprising Two Women, ca. 1515, etching, 15.5 × 22.3 cm. The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York.
    • Figure 98. Giovanni Martinelli, Death Comes to the Banquet Table, ca. 1630, oil on canvas, 120.6 × 174 cm. New Orleans Museum of Art. Photo © Fine Art Images / Bridgeman Images.
    • Figure 99. Giovanni Martinelli, Youth Surprised by Death, 1640s, oil on canvas, 60 × 80 cm. Galleria degli Uffizi, Florence.
    • Figure 100. Follower of Salvator Rosa (signed FGS), Witchcraft Scene, 1674, oil on canvas, 45.8 × 68.2 cm. Private collection. Photo © Christie’s Images / Bridgeman Images.
    • Figure 101. Thomas Wijck, The Alchemist and Death, ca. 1660, oil on panel, 55 × 49 cm. Gift of Alfred and Isabel Bader, 20013 (56–003.32), Agnes Etherington Art Centre, Queen’s University, Kingston.
    • Figure 102. Film poster of The Black Belly of the Tarantula, 1971, directed by Paolo Cavara. Photo: Everett Collection.
    • Figure 103. Pieter Pourbus, The Last Supper, 1548, oil on panel, 46.5 × 63 cm. Groeningemuseum, Bruges. Photo © Art in Flanders / Bridgeman Images.
    • Figure 104. Albrecht Dürer, Four Witches, 1497, engraving, 19 × 13.3 cm. Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam.
    • Figure 105. Giotto, The Pact of Judas, ca. 1303, fresco. Scrovegni Chapel, Padua. Photo © Raffaello Bencini / Bridgeman Images.
    • Figure 106. Ansano di Michele Ciampanti, Madonna del Soccorso, early sixteenth century, panel, 57 × 32 cm. Amedeo Lia Museum, La Spezia. Photo: Wikimedia Commons / Sailko.
    • Figure 107. Salvator Rosa, Witch, ca. 1655, oil on canvas, 41.5 × 31 cm. Palazzo dei Conservatori, Pinacoteca Capitolina, Rome.
    • Figure 108. Salvator Rosa, Soldier, ca. 1655, oil on canvas, 42.5 × 34 cm. Palazzo dei Conservatori, Pinacoteca Capitolina, Rome.
    • Figure 109. Michelangelo, Cumaean Sibyl, 1508–12, fresco. Sistine Chapel, Vatican, Rome. Photo: Bridgeman Images.
    • Figure 110. Label of Strega liqueur. https://www.delcampe.net/es/coleccionismo/etichette/altri-1/etichetta-vino-liquore-strega-g-alberti-benevento-724019203.html?utm_source=delcampe.net&utm_medium=push_auto&utm_campaign=labels/other-1_CARTOLINERIA.

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