The subject of this study is a relatively rare category of artefacts, bronze and terracotta statuettes that represent deities, human figures and animals. They were introduced in the northwestern provinces by Roman troops from the end of the 1st century BCE onwards. The statuettes have been recovered from military and non-military settlements, the surrounding landscape and, to a far lesser extent, from sanctuaries and graves. Until now, their meaning and function have seldom been analysed in relation to their find-spots. Contrary to traditional studies, they have been examined as one separate category of artefacts, which offers new insights into the distribution pattern and iconographic representation of deities. When studying a group of artefacts, a large research area or a large dataset is required, as well as dateable artefacts and find-contexts. These conditions do not apply to the Netherlands and to the majority of statuettes that are central to this study. Moreover, although the changing appearance of statuettes suggest a transformation of cults, the identities of the owners of these statuettes remain invisible to us. Therefore, the issue of Romanization is not put central here. Instead, the focus is on a specific aspect of religion, known as lived religion, within the wider subject of its transformation in the Roman period: how people used statuettes in everyday life, in the context of their houses and settlements.
- Cover
- Contents
- Acknowledgements
- 1. A Rare category of artefacts
- 1.1 Introduction
- 1.2 Theories on Romanization
- 1.3 Lived religion
- 1.4 The life path of statuettes
- 1.5 Distribution and use
- 1.6 The dataset
- 1.7 The areas north and south of the Rhine and the Dutch part of the Roman limes zone
- 1.8 Definition of terms
- 1.9 Structure of the text
- 2. Catalogue and description of find-spots
- 2.1 Introduction
- 2.2 The area north of the Rhine
- 2.2.1 Imported goods: evidence of trade or diplomatic gifts?
- 2.2.2 Friesland and Groningen: the northern coastal area
- 2.2.3 North Holland: the northwestern coastal area
- 2.2.4 Drenthe, Overijssel and the northern part of Gelderland: the northeast
- 2.3 The area south of the Rhine: Gallia Belgica and Germania Inferior
- 2.3.1 Theories on post-conquest settlement development in Lower Germany
- 2.3.2 South Holland and Zeeland
- 2.3.3 Utrecht
- 2.3.4 Southern Gelderland
- 2.3.5 North Brabant and Limburg
- 2.4 The Dutch part of the Roman limes zone
- 2.4.1 The forts and associated settlements on the left bank of the Rhine
- 2.4.2 The forts and associated settlements on the North Sea coast
- 2.5 Conclusions
- 3. Spatial and iconographic analysis
- 3.1 Introduction
- 3.2 Written sources and the archaeological evidence
- 3.3 Deities, human figures and animals
- 3.4 The area north of the Rhine
- 3.4.1 Spatial analysis: a relation between size and function
- 3.5 Iconographic analysis
- 3.5.1 The iconography of the Mars and Mercury statuettes
- 3.5.2 The Isis-Venus figurines from Houwerzijl
- 3.5.3 Jupiter-Sabazius?
- 3.5.4 A bronze mother goddess north of the Rhine?
- 3.5.5 Mounted warriors
- 3.5.6 The warrior from Ezinge
- 3.5.7 A male figurine from Wirdum
- 3.5.8 Domestic animals
- 3.5.9 The bear from Wirdum
- 3.6 Conclusions on the area north of the Rhine
- 3.7 The area south of the Rhine: spatial analysis
- 3.7.1 The rural settlements
- 3.7.2 The urban settlements
- 3.7.3 The limes zone
- 3.7.4 The cemeteries
- 3.7.5 Cemeteries: a relation between find-context and material
- 3.8 The area south of the Rhine: iconographic analysis
- 3.8.1 A relation between material and subject
- 3.8.2 Interpretatio and creolisation
- 3.8.3 The iconography of the Hercules statuettes
- 3.8.4 The iconography of Hercules Magusanus
- 3.8.5 The veneration of Hercules Magusanus
- 3.8.6 Two controversial dedications
- 3.8.7 Venus and water nymphs
- 3.8.8 The iconography of mother goddesses
- 3.8.9 Venerated as mother goddesses
- 3.8.10 A horse-riding acrobat
- 3.8.11 Jupiter-Ammon in Ulpia Noviomagus
- 3.8.12 A mysterious lady from Vechten
- 3.8.13 Minerva or a gladiator?
- 3.8.14 The thorn-puller
- 3.8.15 The power of being different
- 3.8.16 ‘Exotic’ representations
- 3.8.17 Animals with a mission
- 3.8.18 Ithyphallic dogs
- 3.8.19 Triple-horned bulls
- 3.8.20 Horned birds
- 3.9 Conclusions on the area south of the Rhine
- 4. Rituals with statuettes
- 4.1 Introduction
- 4.2 Introduction
- 4.2.1 A long history
- 4.2.2 Categories of ritual deposits
- 4.2.3 A secondary use of appliques
- 4.2.4 Deposits related to crafts?
- 4.2.5 A comparison with British datasets
- 4.2.6 Placating the gods: in anticipation or afterwards?
- 4.3 Deposition of statuette fragments and deliberate fragmentation
- 4.3.1 Broken statuettes in the Neolithic and Bronze Age
- 4.3.2 A healing ritual with female figurines in Egypt
- 4.3.3 The Roman period: deliberate fragmentation in Belgium
- 4.3.4 Deposition of statuette fragments in the Netherlands
- 4.3.5 Deposition of bronze caducei
- 4.4 Magical practices with figurines
- 4.5 Conclusions
- 5. Summary and conclusions
- Discussion and suggestions for further research
- Abbreviations
- Bibliography
- List of maps, figures and drawings
- Figures
- Tables
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