How pervasive is sex segregation in the workplace? Does the concentration of women into a few professions reflect their personal preferences, the "tastes" of employers, or sex-role socialization? Will greater enforcement of federal antidiscrimination laws reduce segregation? What are the prospects for the decade ahead? These are among the important policy and research questions raised in this comprehensive volume, of interest to policymakers, researchers, personnel directors, union leaders—anyone concerned about the economic parity of women.
- Sex Segregation in the Workplace
- Copyright
- Contents
- PREFACE
- 1 Introduction
- EXTENT, TRENDS, AND PROJECTIONS FOR THE FUTURE
- EXPLAINING SEGREGATION
- REDUCING SEGREGATION
- CONCLUSION
- References
- PART I EXTENT, TRENDS, AND PROJECTIONS FOR THE FUTURE
- 2 Trends in Occupational Segregation by Sex and Race, 1960-1981
- MEASUREMENT AND DATA
- TRENDS IN OCCUPATIONAL SEGREGATION, 1960-1981
- COHORT DIFFERENCES IN OCCUPATIONAL SEGREGATION, 1971-1977
- MAJOR COMPONENTS OF CHANGE IN THE OVERALL INDEX, 1972-1981
- CHANGES IN THE SEX COMPOSITION OF OCCUPATIONS, 1960-1977
- TRENDS IN THE SEX SEGREGATION OF OCCUPATIONS BY RACE, 1972-1981
- MAJOR COMPONENTS OF CHANGE IN THE OVERALL INDEX BY RACE
- CONCLUSION
- ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
- APPENDIX A
- Data Sources
- Comparability of Data
- APPENDIX B
- References
- 3 A Woman's Place is With Other Women: Sex Segregation Within Organizations
- WHY ARE SOME FIRMS MORE SEGREGATED THAN OTHERS?
- DATA AND METHODS
- The Sample
- The Documents
- Operationalization
- The Analysis
- RESULTS
- Descriptive Statistics
- Multivariate Analyses
- Deviant Cases: Moderately Desegregated Establishments
- Large Establishments and Bureaucratic Segregation
- Longitudinal Analyses: The Permanence of Sex Segregation
- DISCUSSION
- ACKNOWLEDGMENT
- References
- 4 Job Changing And Occupational Sex Segregation: Sex And Race Comparisons
- EXPLANATIONS OF SEX SEGREGATION
- Labor Supply Explanations
- Labor Demand Explanations
- Reinforcement of Sex Segregation
- EXPLANATION OF MOBILITY
- Occupations and Sex Stereotyping
- Individual Life Changes
- Changes in Labor Demand
- ORGANIZATION OF THE PAPER
- DATA
- DESCRIPTION OF OCCUPATIONAL SEX COMPOSITION AND EMPLOYER CHANGING
- PREDICTING MOBILITY TO AND BETWEEN SEX-ATYPICAL OCCUPATIONS
- Independent Variables
- Results
- SUMMARY AND DISCUSSION
- ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
- References
- 5 Commentary
- 6 Occupational Sex Segregation: Prospects For The 1980s
- ASSUMPTIONS, DATA, AND METHODOLOGY
- Linear Group Labor Force Projection (P1)
- Linear Individual Labor Force Projection (P2)
- Logistic Individual Labor Force Projection (P3)
- Conservative Age Cohort Projection (P5)
- Moderate Age Cohort Projection (P6)
- Optimistic and Moderately Optimistic Age Cohort Projections (P8 And P7)
- PROJECTIONS OF OCCUPATIONAL SEGREGATION, 1981 TO 1990
- MAJOR COMPONENTS OF PROJECTED CHANGE IN THE INDEX
- PROJECTIONS BASED ON AGE COHORTS
- PROJECTIONS TO 1990 OF SEGREGATION AMONG PROFESSIONAL OCCUPATIONS BASED ON COLLEGE MAJORS
- CONCLUSION
- APPENDIX A PROJECTIONS DATA AND METHODOLOGY
- Bls Occupational Employment Projections
- Methodology of Projections Based on Age Cohorts
- APPENDIX C PROJECTIONS FOR PROFESSIONAL OCCUPATIONS BASED UPON COLLEGE MAJORS
- ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
- References
- PART II EXPLAINING SEGREGATION THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES AND EMPIRICAL EVIDENCE
- 7 Occupational Segregation and Labor Market Discrimination
- ECONOMIC EXPLANATIONS OF SEX DIFFERENTIALS IN OUTCOMES
- Theories of Discrimination
- The Human Capital Alternative
- EMPIRICAL FINDINGS
- Discrimination and Earnings
- Occupational Segregation and Earnings
- The Causes of Occupational Segregation
- Pay Differentials Within Occupations
- CONCLUSIONS
- ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
- References
- 8 Toward a General Theory of Occupational Sex Segregation: the Case of Public School Teaching
- TOWARD A GENERAL THEORY OF OCCUPATIONAL SEX SEGREGATION
- HOW TEACHING BECAME A FEMALE OCCUPATION
- CONCLUSION
- ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
- References
- 9 Commentary: Strober's Theory of Occupational Sex Segregation
- THE PROBLEM OF THE DEMISE OF SEX SEGREGATION
- THE PROBLEM OF EXTREME SEGREGATION
- THE HISTORICAL CONTEXT
- FURTHER PROBLEMATIC ASSUMPTIONS
- IS A NEW THEORY OF OCCUPATIONAL SEGREGATION BY SEX NEEDED?
- ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
- References and Bibliography
- 10 Work Experience, Job Segregation, and Wages
- WORK HISTORY, WAGES, AND JOB SEGREGATION: THEORETICAL MODELS
- Work Experience and Earnings
- Labor Force Withdrawals and Wages
- Part-Time Work Experience and Wages
- Labor Force Withdrawals and Job Segregation: Human Capital Explanations
- WOMEN'S WORK AND OCCUPATIONAL HISTORIES
- Patterns of Labor Supply, 1967 to 1979
- Patterns of Occupational Segregation, 1975 to 1979
- WORK HISTORY AND WAGES: EMPIRICAL EVIDENCE
- The Depreciation Effect
- The Restoration Effect
- Effects of Prospective Interruptions on Wage Growth
- Part-Time Work Experience and Intermittency
- Sex Differences in Work History and the Sex-Based Wage Gap
- Work History and Occupational Segregation: Empirical Evidence
- SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
- References and Bibliography
- 11 Sex Typing in Occupational Socialization
- THEORIES OF OCCUPATIONAL CHOICE AND SEX-ROLE SOCIALIZATION
- Theories of Occupational Choice
- Theories of Sex-Role Socialization
- Social Learning Theories
- Cognitive Developmental Theories
- Information Processing Theories
- Identification Theories
- Sex-Role Differentiation
- Biological Components of Sex Typing
- Summary
- SEX DIFFERENCES IN OCCUPATIONAL ORIENTATION PRIOR TO LABOR FORCE ENTRY
- Occupational Aspirations and Expectations
- Discrepancy Between Aspirations and Expectations
- Relationship of Occupational Aspirations to Subsequent Occupational Behavior
- Development Over the Early Stages of the Life Course
- Recent Historical Trends
- Occupational Knowledge
- Occupational Values
- Abilities and Dispositional Traits
- Summary
- DETERMINANTS OF SEX DIFFERENCES IN OCCUPATIONAL ORIENTATION
- Family Influences
- Differential Treatment of Boys and Girls by Parents
- Parental Role Models
- School Influences
- Availability of Same-Sex Role Models
- Sex Stereotyping in Textbooks and Educational Materials
- Counseling And Career Guidance
- Tracking and Vocational Education
- Training in Mathematics and Science
- Legislation and Governmental Intervention Related to Education
- Mass Media Effects: Television Portrayal of Male and Female Occupational Roles
- Early Work Experiences
- Summary
- SOCIALIZATION AS AN EXPLANATION OF SEX SEGREGATION IN THE LABOR MARKET
- References
- 12 Commentary
- 13 Institutional Factors Contributing To Sex Segregation In The Workplace
- INSTITUTIONAL BARRIERS TO JOB TRAINING
- Apprenticeship Programs
- Federal Job Training Programs
- INSTITUTIONAL FACTORS ASSOCIATED WITH ACCESS TO SEX-TYPICAL AND SEX-ATYPICAL JOBS
- Blue-Collar Workers
- Access to Information Regarding Job Opportunities
- Employer Practices Regarding Entrance Requirements
- Organizational Practices Regarding Job Assignment
- White-Collar Workers
- Access to Information and Recruitment Networks
- Entrance Restrictions
- Organizational Practices Regarding Job Assignment
- INSTITUTIONAL FACTORS AFFECTING MOBILITY INTO SEX-TYPICAL AND SEX-ATYPICAL JOBS
- Seniority Systems and Mobility Opportunities
- The Structuring Of Opportunity: Other Organizational Practices
- INSTITUTIONAL MECHANISMS ASSOCIATED WITH RETAINING WORKERS IN SEX-ATYPICAL JOBS
- Recruitment Practices and Information About Jobs
- Training
- Organizational Mechanisms That Influence Women's Retention in Sex-Atypical Jobs
- The Role of Unions
- Lack of Standards for Entry
- Seniority
- Organization of Work and the Workplace
- INSTITUTIONAL FACTORS OUTSIDE THE WORKPLACE
- CONCLUSION
- ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
- References
- 14 Commentary: The Need to Study the Transformation of Job Structures
- PART III REDUCING SEGREGATION: THE EFFECTIVENESS OF INTERVENTIONS
- 15 Job Integration Strategies: Today's Programs And Tomorrow's Needs
- RESEARCH ISSUES
- The Evaluation Framework
- Quality of the Data
- STRATEGIES: MOVING WOMEN INTO ENTRY-LEVEL JOBS
- Recruitment: External and Internal Outreach
- Training: Skills and Information
- PROBLEMS: PROMOTING WOMEN TO HIGHLY SKILLED AND EXECUTIVE-LEVEL POSITIONS
- Variations in Opportunity Structures
- Assessing Qualifications and Potential For Promotion
- CONDITIONS: MANAGING INTERVENTION STRATEGIES
- Business Conditions
- Management Practice
- CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
- Federal Equal Employment Opportunity Policy
- Federal Training and Education Policy
- Management and Union Initiatives
- Research Agenda
- ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
- References
- 16 Occupational Desegregation in Ceta Programs
- DESCRIPTION OF CETA TITLES AND ELIGIBILITY REQUIREMENTS
- DATA
- Continuous Longitudinal Manpower Survey (CLMS)
- Analytic Strategy
- CETA AS A SYSTEM OF OPPORTUNITIES
- OCCUPATIONAL DESEGREGATION IN CETA
- WAGE IMPLICATIONS OF CETA OCCUPATIONS
- In-CETA Wages
- Post-CETA Wages
- Conclusion
- SUMMARY AND POLICY IMPLICATIONS
- References
- 17 Commentary
- 18 Concluding Remarks
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