It is a commonly held belief that athletes, particularly body builders, have greater requirements for dietary protein than sedentary individuals. However, the evidence in support of this contention is controversial. This book is the latest in a series of publications designed to inform both civilian and military scientists and personnel about issues related to nutrition and military service.
Among the many other stressors they experience, soldiers face unique nutritional demands during combat. Of particular concern is the role that dietary protein might play in controlling muscle mass and strength, response to injury and infection, and cognitive performance. The first part of the book contains the committee's summary of the workshop, responses to the Army's questions, conclusions, and recommendations. The remainder of the book contains papers contributed by speakers at the workshop on such topics as, the effects of aging and hormones on regulation of muscle mass and function, alterations in protein metabolism due to the stress of injury or infection, the role of individual amino acids, the components of proteins, as neurotransmitters, hormones, and modulators of various physiological processes, and the efficacy and safety considerations associated with dietary supplements aimed at enhancing performance.
- The Role of Protein and Amino Acids in Sustaining and Enhancing Performance
- Copyright
- Preface
- HISTORY OF THE COMMITTEE
- FOCUS OF THE REPORT
- ORGANIZATION OF THE REPORT
- ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
- Contents
- Executive Summary
- COMMITTEE'S TASK
- METHODS
- FINDINGS
- Effect of Stressors on Protein Requirements of Military Personnel
- Baseline Protein and Amino Acid Requirements
- Physical Activity
- Infection, Injury, and Illness
- Other Stressors
- THE MRDA FOR PROTEIN
- Pregnancy and Lactation
- Benefits and Risks of Protein and Amino Acid Supplements and Alternative Sources of Dietary Protein
- Protein and Amino Acid Supplements and Cognitive Performance
- Protein, Amino Acids, Muscle Mass, and Physical Performance
- Protein, Amino Acids, and Immune Function
- Issues of Protein Quality and Timing of Consumption
- Dietary Protein and Renal Function
- Dietary Protein and Calcium Status
- Amino Acid Toxicity
- Protein and Amino Acid Supplements and Pregnancy
- CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
- Effects of Stressors on Protein Requirements
- Military Recommended Dietary Allowances for Protein
- Benefits and Risks of Supplemental Protein, Amine Acids, and Alternative Sources of Dietary Protein
- REFERENCES
- I Committee Summary and Recommendations
- 1 Committee Overview
- INTRODUCTION
- THE ARMY'S INTEREST IN DIETARY PROTEIN AND PROTEIN BALANCE
- ESTIMATION OF PROTEIN REQUIREMENTS
- Protein Metabolism
- Methods for Assessment of Protein Requirements
- FAO/WHO/UNU Requirements and RDAs: Current Estimates of Average Protein Intake
- Importance of the Debate over Indispensable Amino Acid Requirements
- Argument for Higher Indispensable Amine Acid Requirements
- Argument Against Higher Indispensable Amino Acid Requirements
- The Rebuttal
- Resolution of the Debate
- STRESSORS THAT INFLUENCE PROTEIN REQUIREMENTS
- Physical Activity and Energy Restriction
- Exercise and Amino Acid Catabolism
- Contractile Activity and Muscle Protein Turnover
- Energy Balance and Protein Requirements
- Infection, Injury, and Illness
- Other Stressors
- Heat
- Cold and High Altitude
- Combined Stressors
- THE MRDA FOR PROTEIN
- Protein Intake Studies of Military Personnel
- Pregnancy, Lactation, and the MRDA for Protein
- Summary
- PERFORMANCE BENEFITS AND HEALTH RISKS OF SUPPLEMENTAL PROTEIN, AMINOACIDS, AND PLANT PROTEINS
- Supplement Use Among Army Personnel
- Protein and Amine Acid Supplements and Cognitive Performance
- Protein, Amino Acids, Muscle Mass, and Physical Performance
- Measurement of Muscle Mass
- Control of Muscle Mass and Function
- Hormonal Interactions
- Catabolic Hormones
- Effects of Protein, Energy, and Amine Acid Supplementation on Physical Performance
- Protein and Energy Intake in Long-Distance Cyclists
- The Fatigue Theory
- Amine Acids and Immune Function
- Issues of Protein Quality and Timing of Consumption
- Potential Benefits of Plant and Legume Proteins
- Effects of Timing of Protein Intake
- Risks Associated with High-Protein Diets and Supplements
- Protein and Renal Function
- Protein and Calcium Status
- Toxicity of Amino Acid Supplements
- REFERENCES
- 2 Responses to Questions, Conclusions, and Recommendations
- II AUTHORED PAPERS AND WORKSHOP DISCUSSIONS
- 3 Protein and Amino Acids: Physiological Optimization for Current and Future Military Operational Scenarios
- 4 Overview of Garrison, Field, and Supplemental Protein Intake by U.S. Military Personnel
- INTRODUCTION
- PROTEIN AVAILABILITY FROM OPERATIONAL RATIONS
- HISTORIC RATION INTAKE
- CURRENT RATION INTAKE
- Energy and Protein Intakes of Military Men
- Energy and Protein Intakes of Military Women
- DETERMINATION OF PROTEIN REQUIREMENTS FOR OPERATIONAL RATIONS
- SUPPLEMENT INTAKE
- AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
- REFERENCES
- 5 The Energy Costs of Protein Metabolism: Lean and Mean on Uncle Sam's Team
- ORIGIN OF THE WORD "PROTEIN"
- FUNCTIONS OF BODY PROTEINS AND AMINO ACIDS
- PROTEIN METABOLISM AS AN ENERGY-REQUIRING PROCESS
- ENERGY COSTS OF PROTEIN SYNTHESIS AND REGULATION
- ENERGY COSTS OF PROTEIN BREAKDOWN
- CONCLUSION
- REFERENCES
- DISCUSSION
- 6 Regulation of Muscle Mass and Function: Effects of Aging and Hormones
- INTRODUCTION
- SARCOPENIA OF AGING
- HORMONAL EFFECTS ON MUSCLE PROTEIN
- Insulin
- Growth Hormone and IGF-I
- Sex Steroids
- CATABOLIC HORMONES (GLUCAGON, CORTISOL, EPINEPHRINE, AND THYROID HORMONES)
- SUBSTRATES AND NUTRITION
- AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS
- REFERENCES
- DISCUSSION
- 7 Effects of Protein Intake on Renal Function and on the Development of Renal Disease
- INTRODUCTION
- NEPHROLITHIASIS
- Calcium Excretion and Calcium-Containing Stones
- Calcium Intake
- Determinants of Calcium Clearance
- Patterns of Urinary Excretion in Stone Formers
- Uric Acid Stones
- Prophylactic Treatment of Nephrolithiasis
- ACUTE RENAL FAILURE
- PROTEIN INTAKE AND THE DEVELOPMENT OF GLOMERULOSCLEROSIS
- AUTHOR'S CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
- REFERENCES
- DISCUSSION
- 8 Infection and Injury: Effects on Whole Body Protein Metabolism
- BACKGROUND AND GENERAL RESPONSE CHARACTERISTICS
- THE TRANSLOCATION OF NITROGEN FROM CARCASS TO VISCERA
- REGULATORS OF THE TRANSLOCATION OF PROTEIN
- CONCLUSIONS
- REFERENCES
- DISCUSSION
- 9 Inherent Difficulties in Defining Amino Acid Requirements
- INTRODUCTION
- BACKGROUND TO THE CURRENT CONTROVERSY
- METABOLIC BACKGROUND
- Obligatory Metabolic Demand
- Obligatory Metabolic Demands and Obligatory Oxidative Losses
- Use of the Obligative Oxidative Loss Pattern to Predict a Requirement Pattern
- Animal Data for the Pattern of the Obligatory Metabolic Demand
- The Adaptive Component of the Metabolic Demand
- Diurnal Cycling: A Qualitative Influence on Metabolic Demand?
- Summary of the Metabolic Demand for Indispensable Amine Acids
- FAO REQUIREMENT VALUES AND N BALANCE STUDIES
- Are There Robust N Balance Data that Support the FAO Requirement Values?
- Biological Value of Plant Proteins in Human N Balance Trials
- Adjustment of the Food and Agriculture Organization Requirement Values
- Stable Isotope Estimates of Requirement Values
- Toronto "Break Point" Studies
- Functional Indicators of Adequacy of Intakes Allowing Zero Balance
- Protein Turnover
- Other Metabolic Influences of Amino Acids
- AUTHOR'S CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
- REFERENCES
- DISCUSSION
- 10 Amino Acid Flux and Requirements: Counterpoint; Tentative Estimates Are Feasible and Necessary
- INTRODUCTION
- Proposed Massachusetts Institute of Technology Amine Acid Requirement Pattern
- Adaptive Aspects of Amino Acid Metabolism
- Diurnal Cycling and Amine Acid Requirements
- Nitrogen Balance and Estimations of IAA Requirements
- Stable Isotope Estimates of Requirement Values
- The MIT Amino Acid Requirement Pattern and Physical Activity
- Author's Conclusions and Recommendations
- REFERENCES
- 11 Physical Exertion, Amino Acid and Protein Metabolism, and Protein Requirements
- INTRODUCTION
- EXERCISE AND AMINO ACID CATABOLISM
- EFFECTS OF CONTRACTILE ACTIVITY ON MUSCLE PROTEIN TURNOVER
- INTERACTIONS BETWEEN ENERGY SUPPLY AND PROTEIN AND AMINE ACID METABOLISMIN THE CONTEXT OF INCREASED ...
- POSSIBLE BENEFICIAL EFFECTS OF BRANCHED CHAIN AMINO ACID SUPPLEMENTATION
- GLUTAMINE, THE OVERTRAINING SYNDROME AND IMMUNE FUNCTION
- THE CRUCIAL QUESTIONS
- AUTHOR'S CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
- ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
- REFERENCES
- 12 Skeletal Muscle Markers
- INTRODUCTION
- AVAILABLE METHODS
- Anthropometry
- Ultrasound
- Bioelectric Impedance Analysis
- Urinary Metabolites
- Imaging Methods
- Dual-Energy X-Ray Absorptiometry
- In Vive Neutron Activation/Whole Body Counting
- Monitoring Changes in Skeletal Muscle Mass Over Time
- CONCLUSIONS
- REFERENCES
- 13 Alterations in Protein Metabolism Due to the Stress of Injury and Infection
- ANABOLIC HORMONES
- AUTHOR'S CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
- REFERENCES
- I DISCUSSION
- 14 Amino Acid and Protein Requirements: Cognitive Performance, Stress, and Brain Function
- INTRODUCTION
- The Blood-Brain Barrier: A Key Determinant of Brain Nutritional Status
- TRYPTOPHAN
- TYROSINE
- CHANGES IN AMINO ACIDS DURING FIELD STUDIES: UNDERNUTRITION AND MENTAL PERFORMANCE
- AUTHOR'S CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
- REFERENCES
- DISCUSSION
- 15 Supplementation with Branched-Chain Amino Acids, Glutamine, and Protein Hydrolysates: Rationale for Effects on ...
- INTRODUCTION
- PROTEIN AND AMINE ACID METABOLISM IN ENDURANCE EXERCISE
- BRANCHED-CHAIN AMINE ACIDS
- Central Fatigue Hypothesis
- Effects of Ingestion of Branched-Chain Amino Acids and Tryptophan on Endurance Performance
- Summary of Performance Studies with BCAA and Tryptophan
- Interaction of the BCAA-Aminotransferase Reaction with the Tricarboxylic Acid (TCA) Cycle in Muscle
- Effect of BCAA Ingestion on Plasma Ammonia Concentrations and Muscle Ammonia Production During Exercise
- GLUTAMINE
- Plasma Glutamine Concentrations Following Prolonged Exercise
- Plasma Glutamine Concentrations in Overtrained Athletes and in Tour de France Cyclists
- Link to Immune System
- GLYCOGEN RESYNTHESIS FOLLOWING EXERCISE
- AUTHOR'S CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
- REFERENCES
- DISCUSSION
- 16 Dietary Supplements Aimed at Enhancing Performance: Efficacy and Safety Considerations
- INTRODUCTION
- SAFETY OF AMINO ACIDS AS DIETARY SUPPLEMENTS: THE FASEB/LSRO STUDY
- STUDIES ON PERFORMANCE WITH SELECTED AMINO ACIDS AND PROTEIN
- ALTERNATIVE PROTEIN SOURCES
- DIETARY SUPPLEMENTS AND PREMENSTRUAL SYNDROME
- CHOLINE AND ENDURANCE PERFORMANCE
- AUTHOR'S SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS
- REFERENCES
- DISCUSSION
- II Discussion
- APPENDIXES
- A Workshop Agenda
- THE ROLE OF PROTEIN AND AMINO ACIDS IN SUSTAINING AND ENHANCING PERFORMANCE
- B Biographical Sketches
- COMMITTEE ON MILITARY NUTRITION RESEARCH
- SUBCOMMITTEE ON BODY COMPOSITION, NUTRITION, AND HEALTH OF MILITARY WOMEN
- AUTHORS
- C Acronyms and Abbreviations
- D Protein and Amino Acids—A Selected Bibliography
- E Protein and Energy Content of Selected Operational Rations
- INDEX
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