This is a history of a stateless people, the Carpatho-Rusyns, and their historic homeland, Carpathian Rus’, located in the heart of central Europe. A little over 100,000 Carpatho-Rusyns are registered in official censuses but their population is estimated at around 1,000,000, the greater part in Ukraine and Slovakia. The majority of the diaspora—nearly 600,000—lives in the US.
At the present, when it is fashionable to speak of nationalities as “imagined communities” created by intellectuals or elites who may live in the historic homeland, Carpatho-Rusyns provide an ideal example of a people made—or some would say still being made—before our very eyes. The book traces the evolution of Carpathian Rus’ from earliest prehistoric times to the present, and the complex manner in which a distinct Carpatho-Rusyn people, since the mid-nineteenth century, came into being, disappeared, and then re-appeared in the wake of the revolutions of 1989 and the collapse of communist rule in central and eastern Europe.
To help guide the reader further there are 34 detailed maps plus an annotated discussion of relevant books, chapters, and journal articles.
- Cover
- Title page
- Copyright page
- Contents
- List of Maps
- List of Tables
- Introduction
- 1. Carpatho-Rusyns and the land of Carpathian Rus’
- Human geography
- No shortage of names
- Physical geography
- A borderland of borders
- 2. Carpathian Rus’ in prehistoric times
- Earliest human settlements
- The Iron Age and the Celts
- Early peoples in Carpathian Rus’
- The Roman Empire and the Dacians
- 3. The Slavs and their arrival in the Carpathians
- The Huns and the displacement of peoples
- The origin-of-peoples fetish
- Is DNA the reliable way?
- The Slavs and Carpathian Rus’
- Dwellings of the early Slavs
- The White Croats and the Avars
- 4. State formation in central Europe
- The Pax Romana and the Byzantine Empire
- Greater Moravia
- Saints Constantine/Cyril and Methodius
- Christianity becomes “our” religion
- Who among the East Slavs first received Christianity?
- The Magyars and Hungary
- Historical memory and political reality
- The rise of Poland
- Kievan Rus’
- The Great Debate: the origin of Rus’
- 5. Carpathian Rus’ until the early 16th century
- The formation of the Hungarian Kingdom
- A medieval Carpatho-Rusyn state: fact or fiction?
- The Mongol invasion and the restructuring of Hungary
- The Vlach colonization
- Kings, nobles, and the implementation of serfdom
- Poland: administrative and socioeconomic structure
- The fall of Constantinople and the decline of Orthodoxy
- 6. The Reformation, the Counter-Reformation, and Carpathian Rus’
- The Ottoman Empire in central Europe
- The Protestant Reformation
- The Catholic Counter -Reformation
- Poland and church union
- Transylvania and church union in Hungary
- The Union of Uzhhorod
- Uniates/Greek Catholics: A new church or a return to the old?
- 7. The Habsburg restoration in Carpathian Rus'
- Rákóczi’s “War of Liberation”
- Habsburg Austria’s transformation of Carpathian Rus’
- The Bachka-Srem Vojvodinian Rusyns
- Poland and Galicia’s Lemko Region
- 8. Habsburg reforms and their impact on Carpatho-Rusyns
- The reforms of Maria Theresa and Joseph II
- Uniate/Greek Catholics and the Enlightenment in Carpathian Rus’
- Carpatho-Rusyns become an historical people
- 9. The Revolution of 1848 and the Carpatho-Rusyn national awakening
- The multicultural Austrian Empire
- Kakania’s emperors and kings
- What is nationalism and what are national movements?
- Nationalism in Hungary
- From inferiority to superiority: the transformation of a dangerous complex
- Revolution in the Austrian lands and Hungary
- The Carpatho-Rusyn national awakening: politics
- The first Carpatho-Rusyn political program
- The Carpatho-Rusyn national awakening: culture
- Did Carpatho-Rusyns really love the Russians?
- 10. Carpathian Rus’ in Austria-Hungary, 1868–1914
- The Dual Monarchy and Austrian parliamentarism
- In search of a Rus’ national identity
- The national awakening in the Lemko Region
- Hungary and its magyarization policies
- Magyarization despite the letter of the law
- Carpatho-Rusyns in Hungarian politics
- Carpatho-Rusyns and national survival
- Socioeconomic developments
- Was life in pre-World War I Carpathian Rus’ so destitute?
- 11. Carpatho-Rusyn diasporas before World War I
- Migration to the Srem, Banat, and Bachka
- Emigration abroad to the United States
- Rusyn-American religious and secular organizations
- Rejected Greek Catholics and the “return” to Orthodoxy
- “You are not a proper priest”
- “Ruthenians” become Uhro (Hungarian)-Rusyns, or Russians, or Ukrainians
- Rusyn Americans and international politics
- 12. Carpathian Rus’ during World War I, 1914–1918
- The end of civilized Europe
- World War I in Carpathian Rus’
- The war against Carpatho-Rusyn civilians
- Magyarization reaches its peak
- 13. The end of the old and the birth of a new order, 1918–1919
- National self-determination and socialist revolution
- Rusyn Americans mobilize politically
- Political mobilization in the Carpatho-Rusyn homeland
- Hungary’s autonomous Rus’ Land
- The Ukrainian option
- The meaning of Ukraine
- Carpatho-Rusyns on the international stage
- 14. Subcarpathian Rus’ in interwar Czechoslovakia, 1919–1938
- Czechoslovakia and “Rusyns south of the Carpathians”
- Borders and the autonomy question
- Carpatho-Rusyn national anthems
- Hungarian irredentism
- Political life
- Socioeconomic developments
- Subcarpathian Rus’: Czechoslovakia’s architectural tabula rasa
- Education and culture
- Churches and the religious question
- Orthodoxy: the jurisdictional problem
- The nationality and language questions
- The language question
- 15. The Prešov Region in interwar Slovakia, 1919–1938
- Borders, schools, and censuses
- The problem of statistics
- Carpatho-Rusyns and Slovaks
- Socioeconomic developments
- Education
- The religious question
- The nationality question and cultural developments
- 16. The Lemko Region in interwar Poland, 1919–1938
- Poland, its Ukrainian problem, and the Lemko Region
- Socioeconomic status of the Lemko Rusyns
- Religious and civic activity
- The Lemko-Rusyn national awakening
- 17. Carpatho-Rusyn diasporas during the interwar years, 1919–1938
- Romania and Hungary
- Yugoslavia—the Vojvodina
- The United States
- Marriage and property: two sticking points
- 18. Other peoples in Subcarpathian Rus’
- Magyars
- Jews
- Relations between Jews and Carpatho-Rusyns
- Germans
- Romanians, Slovaks, and Roma/Gypsies
- Russians, Ukrainians, and Czechs
- 19. Autonomous Subcarpathian Rus’ and Carpatho-Ukraine, 1938–1939
- The struggle for autonomy during the interwar years
- Nazi Germany and the Munich Pact
- Autonomous Subcarpathian Rus’
- From Subcarpathian Rus’ to Carpatho-Ukraine
- Alternatives to the Ukrainian national orientation
- Carpatho-Ukraine’s road to “independence”
- 20. Carpathian Rus’ during World War II, 1939–1944
- Nazi Germany’s New Order in Europe
- The Lemko Region in Nazi Germany
- Carpatho-Rusyns in the Slovak state
- Subcarpathian Rus’ in Hungary
- The apogee of the Rusyn national orientation
- Opposition to Hungarian rule
- 21. Carpathian Rus’ in transition, 1944–1945
- The Soviet Army and Ukrainian nationalist partisans
- Rusyn/Lemko Americans and the war in Europe
- The Soviet “liberation” of Subcarpathian Rus’
- Transcarpathian Ukraine and “reunification”
- The act of reunification
- Czechoslovakia acquiesces to Soviet hegemony
- Why did Czechoslovakia give up Subcarpathian Rus’?
- The new Poland and the deportation of the Lemkos: Phase one
- 22. Subcarpathian Rus’/Transcarpathia in the Soviet Union, 1945–1991
- Subcarpathian Rus’ becomes Soviet Transcarpathia
- The Soviet socio-political model
- Totalitarian time
- Forced collectivization and industrialization
- Transcarpathia’s new peoples
- Revising the past and reckoning with “enemies of the people”
- How Carpatho-Rusyns were declared Ukrainians
- Destruction of the Greek Catholic Church
- Transcarpathia’s new Soviet society
- Love of the East
- 23. The Prešov Region in postwar and Communist Czechoslovakia, 1945–1989
- Postwar politics: the Ukrainian National Council
- Population transfers and the UPA
- Communist Czechoslovakia according to the Soviet model
- Carpatho-Rusyns are ukrainianized
- The Prague Spring and the rebirth of Carpatho-Rusyns
- Soviet-style political consolidation and reukrainianization
- Socioeconomic achievements and national assimilation
- 24. The Lemko Region and Lemko Rusyns in Communist Poland, 1945–1989
- Poland reconstituted and reconstructed
- The deportation of the Lemkos: Phase two
- Greek Catholic and Orthodox Lemkos
- Lemkos as Ukrainians
- Lemko fear and anxiety
- 25. Carpatho-Rusyn diasporas old and new, 1945–1989
- Soviet Ukraine (Galicia and Volhynia)
- Czechoslovakia (Bohemia and Moravia)
- Romania (the Banat and Maramureş Regions)
- Yugoslavia (Vojvodina and Srem)
- The United States
- We want to know who we are
- 26. The revolutions of 1989
- Transformation and demise of the Soviet Union
- The end of Communist rule in central Europe
- Carpatho-Rusyns reassert their existence
- One people despite international borders
- Proclamation of the First World Congress of Rusyns
- The autonomy question again
- 27. Post-Communist Transcarpathia—Ukraine
- Unfulfilled political expectations
- Ukraine’s “Rusyn question”
- Carpatho-Rusyns in the international context
- Socioeconomic realities
- A failed or incomplete national movement?
- Traditional religious and secular culture
- Protestantism and Carpatho-Rusyns
- 28. The post-Communist Prešov Region and the Lemko Region—Slovakia and Poland
- Czechoslovakia’s Velvet Revolution
- Censuses confirm nationalities
- Independent Slovakia and the European Union
- Prešov Region Carpatho-Rusyns reaffirm their existence
- The Greek Catholic Church: a positive or negative force?
- Nationality assertion and assimilation
- Codification of a Rusyn literary language
- Poland’s three Lemko-Rusyn communities
- Lemko Rusyns or Lemko Ukrainians?
- The Vatra: a symbol of national and political advocacy
- The attraction of Polish assimilation
- 29. Other Carpatho-Rusyn communities in the wake of the revolutions of 1989
- Ukraine
- The Czech Republic
- Hungary
- Romania
- Yugoslavia—Serbia and Croatia
- The United States
- Canada
- 30. Carpathian Rus’—real or imagined?
- Carpathian Rus’: a reality or an idea?
- Carpathian Rus’ beyond Carpathian Rus’
- Enemies as friends
- A movement of women and young people
- Education and national self-confidence
- Notes
- For further reading
- 1. Reference works and general studies
- 2. Prehistoric times to the 16th century
- 3. The 17th and early 18th centuries
- 4. The reform era and Habsburg rule, 1770s to 1847
- 5. The Revolution of 1848 to the end of World War I
- 6. The interwar years, 1919–1938
- 7. International crises and World War II, 1938–1945
- 8. The Communist era, 1945–1989
- 9. The revolutions of 1989 and their aftermath
- Illustration Sources and Credits
- Index
- Illustrations
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