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The Roman Object Revolution

The Roman Object Revolution

Objectscapes and Intra-Cultural Connectivity in Northwest Europe

Archaeologists working in northwest Europe have long remarked on the sheer quantity and standardisation of objects unearthed from the Roman period, especially compared with earlier eras. What was the historical significance of this boom in standardised objects? With a wide and ever-changing spectrum of innovative objects and styles to choose from, to what extent did the choices made by people in the past really matter? To answer these questions, this book sheds new light on the make-up of late Iron Age and early Roman ‘objectscapes’, through an examination of the circulation and selections of thousands of standardised pots, brooches, and other objects, with emphasis on funerary repertoires, c. 100 bc-ad 100. Breaking with the national frameworks that inform artefact research in much ‘provincial’ Roman archaeology, the book tests the idea that marked increases in the movement of people and objects fostered pan-regional culture(s) and transformed societies. Using a rich database of cemeteries and settlements spanning a swathe of northwest Europe, including southern Britannia, Gallia Belgica, and Germania Inferior, the study extensively applies multivariate statistics (such as Correspondence Analysis) to examine the roles of objects in an ever-changing and richly complex cultural milieu.
  • Tables
  • Figures
  • Preface
  • 1. Standardised objects as historical agents
    • 1.1 the genealogy of the saucer
    • 1.2 the bright red plate at the funeral
    • 1.3 back to the big picture: on globalisation and roman connectivity
    • 1.4 towards objectscapes: a multi-scalar approach to objects en masse
      • 1.4.1 case-study: the agency of china in europe, 1600 – 1800
    • 1.5 the impacts of standardised things-in-motion on objectscapes
      • 1.5.1 what do objectscapes do?
        • 1.5.2 why did past objectscapes look the way they did?
        • 1.5.3 stylistic genealogy
        • 1.5.4 local agency and replication
        • 1.5.5 longer-term evolution
        • 1.5.6 from objectscapes to styles of consumption
    • 1.6 the structure, data, and methods used in this book
      • 1.6.1 the size and shape of the data: samples and coverage
        • 1.6.2 methodological approaches to handling data
        • 1.6.3 interpreting and using correspondence analysis (ca)
  • 2. The roles of objects in later Iron Age societies
    • 2.1 funerary equipment for the late iron age aristocrat
    • 2.2. mediterranean objects in late iron age northwest europe
    • 2.3 local objects: circulations, innovations, and the beginnings of standardisation
      • 2.3.1 the ‘fibula event horizon’
        • 2.3.2 the potter’s wheel and mass consumption
    • 2.4 funerary objectscapes in later iron age northwest europe
      • 2.4.1 changing funerary objectscapes, c. 120 – 20 bc
        • 2.4.2 pottery in funerary objectscapes, c. 120 – 20 bc
        • 2.4.3 fibulae in funerary objectscapes, c. 90 – 20 bc
        • 2.4.4 richly furnished graves, c. 90 – 20 bc
    • 2.5. standardisation as innovation in later iron age funerary objectscapes
  • 3 The object revolution in northwest Europe
    • 3.1 rome’s impact in northwest europe
    • 3.2 the objectscape at rome’s northern military command post: the kops plateau, nijmegen
    • 3.3 funerary objectscapes in early roman northern gaul and beyond
      • 3.3.1 changing funerary objectscapes, c. 25 bc – ad 40
        • 3.3.2 pottery in funerary objectscapes, c. 25 bc – ad 40
        • 3.3.3 richly furnished graves, c. 25 bc – ad 40
    • 3.4 standardised objects and their circulations, c. 25 bc – ad 40
      • 3.4.1 standardised fibulae in settlements and cemeteries, c. 25 bc – ad 40
        • 3.4.2 standardised ceramics in settlements and cemeteries, c. 25 bc – ad 40
        • 3.4.3 standardised objects in funerary objectscapes, c. 25 bc – ad 40
    • 3.5. standardised objects in the inter-artefactual domain
  • 4. Objectscapes, cityscapes, and colonial encounters
    • 4.1 claudian conquest, colonies, and cityscapes
    • 4.2 objectscapes at claudio-neronian colchester: camulodunum and colonia claudia victricensis
    • 4.3 funerary objectscapes in claudio-neronian northwest europe
      • 4.3.1 changing funerary objectscapes, c. ad 40 – 70
        • 4.3.2 pottery in funerary objectscapes, c. ad 40 – 70
        • 4.3.3. richly furnished graves, c. ad 40 – 70
    • 4.4 standardised objects and their circulations, c. ad 40 – 70
      • 4.4.1 standardised fibulae in settlements and cemeteries, c. ad 40 – 70
        • 4.4.2 standardised ceramics in settlements and cemeteries, c. ad 40 – 70
        • 4.4.3 the impact of gallic migration and auxiliary recruitment on imperial objectscapes
        • 4.4.4 standardised objects in funerary objectscapes, c. ad 40 – 70
    • 4.5 imperial styles of consumption, roman urbanism and regional diversity
  • 5 Local elites, imperial culture, and provincial objectscapes
    • 5.1 perspectives on flavian romanisation
    • 5.2 flavian connectivity and local aristocracies
    • 5.3 funerary objectscapes in flavian northwest europe
      • 5.3.1 changing funerary objectscapes, c. ad 70 – 100
        • 5.3.2 pottery in funerary objectscapes, c. ad 70 – 100
        • 5.3.3 richly-furnished graves, c. ad 70 – 100
        • 5.3.4. returning auxiliaries and northern gallic funerary objectscapes
    • 5.4 standardised objects and their circulations, c. ad 70 – 100
      • 5.4.1 standardised ceramics in settlements and cemeteries, c. ad 70 – 100
        • 5.4.2 case-study: drinking vessels in southeast britannia,
        • c. ad 40 – 250
        • 5.4.3 standardised objects in funerary objectscapes, c. ad 70 – 100
    • 5.5 the emergence of roman provincial objectscapes
  • 6. Historical change and the Roman inter-artefactual domain
    • 6.1 the roman object revolution in northwest europe
    • 6.2 standardised objects and long-term change
    • 6.3 imperialism and beyond. deterritorialised styles of consumption and their evolution in the roman northwest
      • 6.3.1 the catuvellauni-treveri nexus
        • 6.3.2 how objects made provincial societies: the batavi and the nervii
    • 6.4 epilogue: objectscapes and intra-cultural connectivity in the roman world
  • References
  • Appendices
    • 1: data sources by archaeological site
    • 2: fine ware vessel form classifications
  • Figure 1.1. Finds from grave 328 at King Harry Lane, St. Albans, c. 15 BC-AD 30 (after Stead/Rigby 1989, 364).
    • Figure 1.2. Chinese porcelain shipped by the Dutch East India Company, c. 1640-1649 (total no. of vessels per location given in brackets). Data from Volker (1954).
    • Figure 1.3. Ceramic assemblages from Dutch cities, c. 1600-1650. Data from Bartels (1999).
    • Figure 1.4. Ceramic assemblages from Dutch cities, c. 1750-1800. Data from Bartels (1999).
    • Figure 1.5. Early/mid-18th century export Chinese porcelain saucer (with cup, right), with Imari decoration and mostly worn overglaze gold enamel (copyright: author).
    • Figure 1.6. The locations of major late Iron Age and early Roman cemeteries and settlements considered in this study, in relation to the Roman road network.
    • Figure 2.1. Finds from the rich late Iron Age grave at the Tene, Baldock (after Stead/Rigby 1986, 52).
    • Figure 2.2. Selected finds from Vieux-les-Asfeld grave 3 (after Lambot et al. 1994, 219-224).
    • Figure 2.3. The distribution of Dressel 1 amphorae in funerary contexts in NW Europe (data from Poux 2004 with additions), with other sites mentioned in the text.
    • Figure 2.4. Schema of clientship in later Iron Age societies (adapted from Roymans 1990, 43).
    • Figure 2.5. The locations of late Iron Age cemeteries, graves, and settlements considered in this chapter.
    • Figure 2.6. Pottery finds from Wederath grave 290 (after Haffner 1971, Taf. 70).
    • Figure 2.7. A comparison of pottery vessels from six La Tène D2a graves in Sussex, Champagne, Luxembourg, and Rhineland-Pfalz. Legend: bk = beaker, bw = bowl, fkj = flask-jar, jr = jar, pdj = pedestal jar, psj = pear-shaped jar, sb = shallow bowl (after H
    • Figure 2.8. A comparison of common fibula types from selected late Iron Age graves in Sussex, Kent, Champagne, and Luxembourg (after Bushe-Fox 1925; Fitzpatrick 1997; Metzler-Zens et al. 1999; Schendzielorz 2006; Stead/Flouest/Rigby 2006).
    • Figure 2.9. Selected finds from the ‘Kelvedon warrior’ grave, Essex (after Sealey 2007, 6-16).
    • Figure 3.1. The locations of late Iron Age and early Roman cemeteries, graves, and settlements considered in this chapter.
    • Figure 3.2. The Kops Plateau, Nijmegen, c. 12 BC to AD 70. Labelled buildings: A – praetorium, B – horreum, C – principia, and D – stables. Drawn by Rob Mols, municipality of Nijmegen; courtesy Harry van Enckevort.
    • Figure 3.3. Common Italian-style terra sigillata vessels (after Brulet et al. 2010, 39).
    • Figure 3.4. Thin-walled pottery vessel forms (after Brulet et al. 2010, 302; ACO beaker after Vegas 1975, Taf. 4).
    • Figure 3.5. Feasting assemblage from latrine pit at the Kops Plateau, including Italian-style terra sigillata plates and cups and thin-walled beakers (courtesy Annelies Koster, Museum Het Valkhof, Nijmegen).
    • Figure 3.6. Common Gallo-Belgic ware vessel forms, grouped by genealogical influence (after Deru 1996, 30-140).
    • Figure 3.7. The excavated grid at the Kops Plateau, Nijmegen (drawn by Tim van der Weyden, municipality of Nijmegen; courtesy Harry van Enckevort).
    • Figure 3.8. Correspondence Analysis of fine ware pottery from the Kops Plateau by excavated area. The upper plot shows patterning by excavated area (matching numbers and colours in Fig. 3.7), with corresponding associations of objects in the lower plot.
    • Figure 3.9. Correspondence Analysis of fine ware pottery from the Kops Plateau by excavated feature. The upper plot shows patterning by feature, with corresponding associations of objects in the lower plot.
    • Figure 3.10. Terra rubra butt-beaker from Nijmegen (Deru type P18). Courtesy Annelies Koster, Museum Het Valkhof, Nijmegen.
    • Figure 3.11. Finds from grave 202 at King Harry Lane, St. Albans (after Stead/Rigby 1989, 323, Fig. 125).
    • Figure 3.12. Pottery from the rich Augustan woman’s grave from Wincheringen, Rhineland-Pfalz (after Metzler et al. 1991, 135, Fig. 100).
    • Figure 3.13. New fibula types of the Augustan-Tiberian period in northwest Europe (after Gaspar 2007, Taf. 28-64).
    • Figure 3.14. A comparison of the ratios of five brooch types at selected locations from northwest Europe (total nos. in brackets, *denotes cemetery data, **denotes data from larger corpuses).
    • Figure 3.15. The relative proportions of vessel shapes in Italian-style terra sigillata at selected sites (total nos. in brackets).
    • Figure 3.16. The relative proportions of the eight most common Italian-style terra sigillata types at selected sites (total nos. in brackets).
    • Figure 3.17. The relative proportions of vessel shapes in fine wares of Mediterranean genealogy at selected sites (total nos. in brackets, *denotes cemetery data).
    • Figure 3.18. The relative proportions of vessel shapes in Gallo-Belgic fine wares of northwest European genealogy at selected sites (total nos. in brackets, *denotes cemetery data).
    • Figure 3.19. The relative proportions of different butt-beaker types at selected sites, compared with levels of universally circulating Gallo-Belgic A4-9 platters (total nos. in brackets, *denotes cemetery data).
    • Figure 3.20. Common Augustan-Tiberian butt-beaker types (after Deru 1996, 98-110).
    • Figure 3.21. Correspondence Analysis of the contents of 630 graves from northwest Europe, c. 25 BC to AD 40. The upper plot shows patterning by grave, with corresponding associations of objects in the lower plot.
    • Figure 3.22. Interpretive schematic of Fig. 3.21. Positions of selected objects are approximate.
    • Figure 3.23. The contents of selected graves Fig. 3.21, highlighting selections of objects with trans-regional circulations. King Harry Lane objects after Stead/Rigby 1989, 365, Fig. 157; Noyelles-Godault objects after Bastien/Demolon 1975, 13, Fig. 11; L
    • Figure 3.24. The contents of selected graves from Fig. 3.21, highlighting selections of objects with regional circulations. King Harry Lane objects after Stead/Rigby 1989, 373, Fig. 161; Baralle objects after Hosdez/Jacques 1989, 114-6; Wederath objects a
    • Figure 3.25. The contents of selected graves with ‘imperial’ associations in Fig. 3.21. Nijmegen-Hunerberg objects reconstructed from standard typologies; Neuss objects after Müller 1977, Taf. 64; Trier objects after Goethert-Polaschek 1984, 209-216.
    • Figure 4.1. Late Iron Age to early Roman Colchester, showing the locations of major sites discussed in this study (after Baggs et al. 1994, 4, Fig. 3).
    • Figure 4.2. The tombstone of Marcus Favonius Facilis, Colchester (RIB 200). Courtesy Glynn Davis, Colchester and Ipswich Museum Service.
    • Figure 4.3. Claudio-Neronian objects, including common South Gaulish terra sigillata vessels, Lyon and Gallo-Belgic ware, and new forms of fibulae (after Hawkes/Hull 1947, Pl. 39-55; Deru 1996, 40-130; Gaspar 2007, Taf. 73-75).
    • Figure 4.4. Sheepen, Camulodunum, showing excavated areas and graves (after Niblett 1985, 4, Fig. 3).
    • Figure 4.5. The locations of Claudio-Neronian cemeteries, graves, and settlements considered in this chapter.
    • Figure 4.6. Correspondence Analysis of pottery, glass and alloy vessels at selected Claudio-Neronian graves from Colchester and Essex, with data from the Sheepen and Gosbecks settlements included as supplementary points. The upper plot shows patterning by
    • Figure 4.7. The Roman fortress at Culver St., Colchester, highlighting the latrine (F0900) in the postulated tribune’s house (after Crummy 1992, 22, Fig. 3.2).
    • Figure 4.8. Selected Gallo-Belgic vessels and their equivalents from Claudio-Neronian Colchester (after Deru 1996, 76-140; Hawkes/Hull 1947, Pl. 56-79).
    • Figure 4.9. A reconstruction of grave 6260 at Tollgate junction, Kent (copyright Oxford Archaeology, drawn by Peter Lorimer).
    • Figure 4.10. Selected finds from Wederath grave 2215 (after Cordie-Hackenberg/Haffner 1997, Taf. 604-5).
    • Figure 4.11. The ratios of five standardised brooch types at selected locations from Claudio-Neronian northwest Europe (total nos. in brackets, *denotes cemetery data).
    • Figure 4.12. The relative proportions of vessel shapes in Italian-style terra sigillata at selected sites (total nos. in brackets, *denotes cemetery data).
    • Figure 4.13. The relative proportions of the eight most common Italian-style terra sigillata types at selected sites (total nos. in brackets, *denotes cemetery data).
    • Figure 4.14. The relative proportions of vessel shapes in fine wares of Mediterranean genealogy at selected Claudio-Neronian sites (total nos. in brackets, *denotes cemetery data).
    • Figure 4.15. The relative proportions of vessel shapes in Gallo-Belgic wares of northern European genealogy at selected Claudio-Neronian sites (total nos. in brackets, *denotes cemetery data).
    • Figure 4.16. Correspondence Analysis of Gallo-Belgic ware assemblages at selected cemeteries and settlements from northwest Europe, c. 25 BC-AD 70. The upper plot shows patterning by location (*denotes cemetery data, 2 = pre-Claudian, and 3 = Claudio-Nero
    • Figure 4.17. Interpretive schematic of Fig. 4.16. Positions of selected vessels are approximate.
    • Figure 4.18. The relative proportions of Gallo-Belgic bowl types at selected sites, compared with levels of universally circulating A14-19 Gallo-Belgic platters and C8 cups (total nos. in brackets, *denotes cemetery data).
    • Figure 4.19. Claudio-Neronian Gallo-Belgic bowl types (after Deru 1996, 68-80).
    • Figure 4.20. Correspondence Analysis of the contents of 837 graves from northwest Europe, c. AD 40-70. The upper plot shows patterning by grave, with corresponding associations of objects in the lower plot.
    • Figure 4.21. Interpretive schematic of Fig. 4.20. Positions of selected objects are approximate.
    • Figure 4.22. The contents of selected graves from the deterritorialised ‘imperial’ cluster in Fig. 4.20. Trier objects reconstructed from standard typologies; Nijmegen-Hunerberg objects after Haalebos 1998, 25; Neuss objects after Müller 1977, Taf. 82.
    • Figure 4.23. The contents of selected graves from Fig. 4.20, highlighting selections of objects with trans-regional circulations. Nijmegen-Hunerberg objects reconstructed from standard typologies; Tollgate Junction objects after Allen et al. 2012, 330, Fi
    • Figure 4.24. The contents of selected graves from Fig. 4.20, highlighting selections of objects with regional circulations. Little Waltham pottery reconstructed from Hawkes/Hull 1947; Feulen objects after Schendzielorz 2006, Taf. 57.
    • Figure 4.25. The contents of the Neronian graves 356 (top) and 362 (bottom) from Holloway Street, Exeter. Courtesy Thomas Cadbury, Royal Albert Memorial Museum, Exeter.
    • Figure 5.1. Grave 9 from the wealthy cemetery of Ulpia Noviomagus, Nijmegen (courtesy Annelies Koster and Museum Het Valkhof, Nijmegen).
    • Figure 5.2. The tripod grave, Verulamium (courtesy David Thorold, Verulamium Museum, St. Albans).
    • Figure 5.3. Objects from grave 135, Fache des Près Aulnoys cemetery, Bavay (after Loridant/Deru 2009, 160, Fig. 63).
    • Figure 5.4. The locations of Flavian cemeteries, graves, and settlements considered in this chapter.
    • Figure 5.5. Selected pottery and fibula types in Flavian northwest Europe (after Deru 1996, 74-144; Gaspar 2007, Taf. 77-79).
    • Figure 5.6. Selected pottery vessels from the lower fill of grave 5 at Alton, Hampshire (after Millett 1986a, 68-69, Figs. 28-29).
    • Figure 5.7. Grave 8 from the wealthy cemetery of Ulpia Noviomagus, Nijmegen (courtesy Annelies Koster and Museum Het Valkhof, Nijmegen).
    • Figure 5.8. The relative proportions of fine wares with Mediterranean genealogy (top) and northern European genealogy (bottom) at selected settlements and cemeteries in northwest Europe, c. AD 70-100 (total nos. in brackets, *denotes cemetery data).
    • Figure 5.9. The relative proportions of the seven common Gallo-Belgic pottery types at selected sites in the Flavian period (total nos. in brackets, *denotes cemetery data).
    • Figure 5.10. The relative proportions of drinking vessel classes at selected cemeteries and settlements in the Flavian period (total nos. in brackets, *denotes cemetery data). Note that the vessels from settlements are exclusively fine wares, whereas the
    • Figure 5.11. The relative proportions of drinking vessel classes at selected settlements and sites at Roman London, Colchester (top) and their hinterlands (bottom), c. AD 40-250. Data are quantified by EVE (totals per site in brackets).
    • Figure 5.12. Correspondence Analysis of the contents of 700 graves from northwest Europe, c. AD 70-100. The upper plot shows patterning by grave, with corresponding associations of objects in the lower plot.
    • Figure 5.13. Interpretive schematic of Fig. 5.12. Positions of selected objects are approximate.
    • Figure 5.14. The objects from grave 224 at Blicquy, Hainaut (after De Laet et al. 1972, Pl. 65; pottery vessels reconstructed from standard typologies).
    • Figure 5.15. The objects from grave 7 at Alton, Hampshire (after Millett 1986a, 72, Figs. 34-35).
    • Figure 5.16. The objects from grave 368, Holloway Street, Exeter. Courtesy Thomas Cadbury, Royal Albert Memorial Museum, Exeter.
    • Figure 5.17. Returning Batavian auxiliaries? The objects from graves 301 and 318 at the cemetery of Nijmegen-Hatert, Gelderland (after Haalebos 1990, 41, Fig. 16 and 47, Fig. 20; some vessels reconstructed from contemporary graves in the cemetery).
    • Figure 5.18. Returning Nervian auxiliaries? The objects from graves 42 and 210 at Blicquy (after De Laet et al. 1972, Pl. 16 and 59), and grave 12 at Thure, Solre-sur-Sambre (after Brulet 1972, 36, Fig. 18), both Hainaut.
    • Figure 5.19. The objects from grave 48 at Blicquy, Hainaut (after De Laet et al. 1972, Pl. 18).
    • Table 1.1. Numbers of graves and associated classes of objects included in the project database.
    • Table 1.2. The quantities of fine ware pottery and fibulae from funerary contexts in the project database.
    • Table 1.3. The quantities of fine ware pottery and fibulae from settlement contexts in the project database.
    • Table 1.4. Locations of funerary assemblages in the project database, by modern administrative boundaries.
    • Table 1.5. Locations of settlement assemblages in the project database, by modern administrative boundaries.
    • Table 1.6. Numbers of settlement and funerary assemblages included the project database, by settlement-type.
    • Table 2.1. The deposition of pottery vessels, fibulae and martial equipment at Iron Age Wederath.
    • Table 2.2. The deposition of pottery vessels, fibulae and martial equipment at selected Iron Age cemeteries from the Luxembourg region and adjacent territory.
    • Table 2.3. The deposition of pottery vessels, fibulae and martial equipment at selected Iron Age cemeteries from the Champagne region, with pottery data from the Reims oppidum.
    • Table 2.4. The deposition of pottery vessels, fibulae and martial equipment at selected Iron Age cemeteries from northern Gaul and southern Britain.
    • Table 2.5. The prevalence of animal offerings per grave (presence/absence) in selected late Iron Age cemeteries.
    • Table 2.6. The percentages of different classes of pottery vessels in the La Tène D1 phases (c. 120-80 BC) at the cemeteries of Wederath and Lamadelaine.
    • Table 2.7. The percentages of different classes of pottery vessels in the La Tène D2a phases (c. 90/80-50 BC) at selected cemeteries, with settlement assemblages from Reims.
    • Table 2.8. The percentages of different classes of pottery vessels in the La Tène D2b phases (c. 60-20 BC) at selected cemeteries, with settlement assemblages from Reims.
    • Table 2.9. The percentages of different fibula classes according to Feugère’s type-series (1985) in the La Tène D2 phases (c. 90-20 BC) at selected cemeteries.
    • Table 2.10. Richly furnished graves of the La Tène D2a (90/80-50 BC) and their contents ranked according to the presence of amphorae and feasting equipment.
    • Table 2.11. Richly furnished graves of the La Tène D2b (60-20 BC) and their contents ranked according to the presence of amphorae and feasting equipment.
    • Table 3.1. The deposition of pottery vessels, fibulae, martial equipment, and other objects at selected cemeteries in southeast Belgica, c. 30 BC-AD 20.
    • Table 3.2. The deposition of pottery vessels, fibulae, martial equipment, and other objects at selected cemeteries in southeast Belgica, c. 15 BC-AD 45.
    • Table 3.3. The deposition of pottery vessels, fibulae, martial equipment, and other objects at selected cemeteries in northern Belgica, c. 15 BC-AD 45.
    • Table 3.4. The deposition of pottery vessels, fibulae, martial equipment, and other objects at selected cemeteries in southeast Britain, c. 25 BC-AD 40.
    • Table 3.5. The prevalence of animal offerings per grave (presence/absence) in selected cemeteries, c. 30 BC-AD 45.
    • Table 3.6. The percentages of different classes of pottery vessels in the GR1-2 phases (c. 30 BC-AD 20) at selected cemeteries.
    • Table 3.7. The percentages of different classes of pottery vessels in the GR2-R1 phases (c. 15 BC-AD 45) at selected cemeteries.
    • Table 3.8. Richly furnished graves of the GR1 phase (c. 30-15 BC) and their contents ranked according to the presence of amphorae, feasting equipment and other objects.
    • Table 3.9. Richly furnished graves of the GR2 phase (c. 15 BC-AD 20) and their contents ranked according to the presence of amphorae and other objects.
    • Table 3.10. Richly furnished graves of the R1 phase (c. AD 20-45) and their contents ranked according to the presence of selected objects.
    • Table 4.1. The numbers of selected fibula types at different locations from Claudio-Neronian Colchester. *Denotes larger assemblages spanning multiple periods. Assemblages associated with military presence and veteran colony are highlighted in grey.
    • Table 4.2. The deposition of pottery vessels, fibulae, glass vessel, martial equipment, lamps, and coins at selected cemeteries in southeast Belgica, c. AD 40-70.
    • Table 4.3. The deposition of pottery vessels, fibulae, glass vessel, martial equipment, lamps, and coins at selected cemeteries in northwest Belgica and the Rhineland, c. AD 40-70.
    • Table 4.4. The deposition of pottery vessels, fibulae, glass vessel, martial equipment, lamps and coins at selected cemeteries in southern Britannia, c. AD 40-70.
    • Table 4.5. The prevalence of animal offerings per grave (presence/absence) in selected cemeteries, c. AD 40-70.
    • Table 4.6. The percentages of different classes of pottery vessels in the Claudio-Neronian phases (c. AD 40-70) at selected cemeteries from southeast Belgica.
    • Table 4.7. The percentages of different classes of pottery vessels in the Claudio-Neronian phases (c. AD 40-70) at selected cemeteries from northwest Belgica and the Rhineland.
    • Table 4.8. The percentages of different classes of pottery vessels in the Claudio-Neronian phases (c. AD 40-70) at selected cemeteries from southern Britannia.
    • Table 4.9. Richly furnished graves of the Claudio-Neronian period (c. AD 40-70) and their contents ranked according to the presence of lamps, Lyon ware, glass vessels, and terra sigillata. *Denotes graves also appearing in Table 4.10.
    • Table 4.10. Richly furnished graves of the Claudio-Neronian period (c. AD 40-70) and their contents ranked according to the presence of amphorae, alloy vessels, copper alloy brooches, and Gallo-Belgic wares. *Denotes graves also appearing in Table 4.9.
    • Table 4.11. Pre-Flavian auxiliary recruitment from northern Gaul, after Roymans 1996b, 22, Table 1. *Denotes units known from the late first and early second century AD from Britain, but probably of pre-Flavian origin.
    • Table 4.12. The prevalence of graves featuring objects associated with a military/imperial repertoire in northwest Europe in the Claudio-Neronian period (c. AD 40-70).
    • Table 4.13. The selected contents of graves featuring objects with strong representational associations with military and colonial communities. Graves from cemeteries lacking direct military and colonial associations are highlighted in grey.
    • Table 4.14. The selected contents of graves featuring objects with military and colonial associations, ranked according to the presence of Gallo-Belgic bowls and flask-jars. Graves from cemeteries lacking direct military and colonial associations are high
    • Table 5.1. The deposition of pottery vessels, fibulae, glass vessel, martial equipment, lamps and coins at selected cemeteries in southeast Belgica, c. AD 70-100.
    • Table 5.2. The deposition of pottery vessels, fibulae, glass vessel, martial equipment, lamps and coins at selected cemeteries in northwest Belgica and Germania Inferior, c. AD 70-100.
    • Table 5.3. The deposition of pottery vessels, fibulae, glass vessel, lamps and coins at selected cemeteries in southern Britannia, c. AD 70-100.
    • Table 5.4. The prevalence of animal offerings per grave (presence/absence) in selected cemeteries, c. AD 70-100.
    • Table 5.5. The percentages of different classes of pottery vessels in the Flavian phases (c. AD 70-100) at selected cemeteries from southeast Belgica.
    • Table 5.6. The percentages of different classes of pottery vessels in the Flavian phases (c. AD 70-100) at selected cemeteries from northwest Belgica and Germania Inferior.
    • Table 5.7. The percentages of different classes of pottery vessels in the Flavian phases (c. AD 70-100) at selected cemeteries from southern Britannia.
    • Table 5.8. Richly furnished graves of the Flavian period (c. AD 70-100) and their contents ranked according to the presence of objects associated with literacy, alloy vessels, lamps, glass vessels and terra sigillata.
    • Table 5.9. The selected contents of graves from the Flavian period (c. AD 70-100) featuring glass beads.
    • Table 5.10. The selected contents of graves from the Flavian period (c. AD 70-100) featuring Hod Hill fibulae.
    • Table 5.11. The incidence of graves featuring objects associated with an imperial repertoire in northwest Europe in the Flavian period (c. AD 70-100).
    • Table 5.12. The percentage composition by pottery fabric of biconical beaker vessels from excavated settlement contexts from London, Colchester, and hinterland sites, c. AD 40-250. Pottery vessels are quantified by EVE (totals per site in brackets).

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