The modern research university originated in Europe in the second half of the nineteenth century, largely due to the creation and expansion of the teaching and research laboratory. The universities and the sciences underwent a laboratory revolution that fundamentally changed the nature of both. This revolutionary development began in chemistry, where Justus Liebig is credited with systematically employing his students in his ongoing research during the 1830s. Later, this development spread to other fields, including the social sciences and the humanities. The consequences for the universities were colossal. The expansion of the laboratories demanded extensive new building programs, reshaping the outlook of the university. The social structure of the university also diversified because of this laboratory expansion, while what it meant to be a scientist changed dramatically. This volume explores the spatial, social, and cultural dimensions of the rise of the modern research laboratory within universities and their consequent reshaping.
- Cover
- Table of Contents
- Preface
- Part I: The Laboratory Revolution: Origins and Impact
- 1. The Joint Emergence of the Teaching-Research Laboratory and the Modern University: An Introduction
- Klaas van Berkel and Ernst Homburg
- 2. Origins and Spread of the ‘Giessen Model’ in University Science
- 3. The Laboratory Ethos, 1850–1900
- Part II: Laboratory Networks
- 4. Chemistry in Zürich, 1833–1930: Developing the Teaching-Research Laboratory in the Swiss Context
- 5. Island Kingdoms in the Making: The New Laboratories and the Fragmentation of Dutch Universities c.1900
- 6. A Fertile Ecosystem: University Chemical Laboratories and their Suppliers in Fin-de-Siècle Paris
- 7. Fighting for Modern Teaching and Research Laboratories in Norway: The Chemistry Laboratory in Political Dispute around 1920
- 8. Religion and the Laboratory Revolution: Towards a Physiological Laboratory at a Calvinist University in the Netherlands, 1880–1924
- Part III: Laboratory Values
- 9. Aspects of the Social Organization of the Chemical Laboratory in Heidelberg and Imperial College, London
- 10. Of Growing Significance: The Support Staff in the Laboratories and Institutes of Utrecht University during the Interwar Period
- 11. A Revolution in Genetics at Gendered Experimental Venues: Cambridge and Berlin, 1890–1930
- 12. Serialized Laboratories: Laboratory Journals and the Making of Modern Science and Scientific Publishing, 1840s–1950s
- 13. Images of the Laboratory in the Popular Press
- Acknowledgements
- Index
- List of Figures and Charts
- Figures
- Figure 2.1 Liebig’s Kaliapparat.
- Figure 2.2 Interior view of Liebig’s Analytical Laboratory in Giessen, 1842.
- Title page of F. Kohlrausch, Leitfaden der praktischen Physik (Leipzig: B. G. Teubner, 1870).
- Figure 3.2 Students taking an elementary class at the Cavendish Laboratory, Cambridge.
- Figure 4.1 The locations of the different laboratories in nineteenth-century Zürich. A: The Carolinum, adjoining the Grossmünster. B: The 1842 Kantonsschule building. C: The 1861 Polytechnic Laboratory on Rämistrasse. D: The 1887 Polytechnic Laboratory. T
- Kantonsschule laboratory, c.1850. Löwig is on the left, with the cigarette, and Schweizer is near the fume hood, wearing the cap. Courtesy: Archives, Department of Chemistry, University of Zürich.
- Figure 4.3 The exterior of the Rämistrasse laboratory. The people standing at the far end of the building give an idea of the scale. The main Polytechnic building is immediately behind the laboratory. Courtesy: ETH Bildarchiv.
- Figure 5.1 Map of the city of Utrecht, showing the laboratories and clinics established in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Source: Schuur, ‘Naar de stadsrand’, p. 84. Courtesy: Universiteitsmuseum Utrecht.
- Figure 5.2 Map of the city of Groningen in 1910, with the numbered laboratories and institutes of the university. Source: Van Berkel, Universiteit van het Noorden, vol. 2, p. 177.
- Figure 5.3 Plan of the Inorganic Chemistry Laboratory at Groningen, ground floor. Number 31 (on the left) is the professor’s sitting room (‘Zitkamer van den Hoogleeraar’) and next to it his private laboratory (Number 30, ‘Laboratorium van den Hoogleeraar’
- Figure 6.1 Advertisement for Poulenc Frères. Source: A. Wurtz, Dictionnaire de chimie (Paris, 1894).
- Figure 6.2 Le laboratoire municipal de chimie de Paris. A painting by Ferdinand Gueldry (1858–1945), presented to the Salon of 1887. Notice the glassware and the earthenware. Some chemists wore a large apron but no lab coats. Courtesy: Carnavalet Museum o
- Figure 6.3 Laboratory oven, Chenal & Douilhet make, date unknown. Courtesy: Musée de Bretagne, Rennes, France.
- Figure 6.4 Filtering at the Chenal & Douilhet factory. From Enzymes et produits physiologiques. Source: Chenal, Douilhet & Cie.: Paris, 1904.
- Figure 6.5 Advertisement by Etablissements Poulenc Frères, dating from the early 1920s. In 1928 the company would merge with Société chimique des usines du Rhône and thus change its name. Stovaine continued being used until the 1940s. Courtesy: Université
- Figure 7.1 Professor Ellen Gleditsch with her research assistants Ernst Føyn and Ruth Bakken in the old university laboratory in Frederiksgate in the early 1930s. Courtesy: Norsk Farmasihistorisk Museum/Norsk Folkemuseum.
- Figure 7.2 One of the student chemistry laboratories at the Norwegian Institute of Technology, undated. All students had to pass the laboratory courses in qualitative and quantitative analysis. The laboratories remained more or less unchanged for 40 years
- Figure 7.3 Laboratory course in chemistry at the University of Oslo in autumn 1952, in the new physics and chemistry building inaugurated in 1935 (officially inaugurated the year after). Note the fume hoods to the right. Courtesy: Museum of University His
- Figure 7.4 Crowded laboratory course at the Norwegian Institute of Technology in 1958, in one of the newly erected chemistry buildings. Every laboratory bench was equipped with small fume cupboards and sinks. Courtesy: Thorleif Anthonsen / NTNU.
- Figure 8.1 On the left: the Psychiatric-Neurological Clinic (Valeriuskliniek) in Valeriusplein in Amsterdam-Zuid, which opened in 1910. On the corner: the Physiological Laboratory, opened in 1918. Picture from 1925. Courtesy: VU, Collection HDC | Protesta
- Figure 8.2 F.J.J. Buytendijk in the Physiological Laboratory, standing next to (probably) a micro respirometer, 1919. (Thanks to Mart van Lieburg for his suggestion regarding the apparatus.) Courtesy: VU, Collection HDC | Protestant Heritage.
- Figure 9.1 The 70th birthday celebration held by the Chemical Institute for Paul Jannasch (middle of the front row) in October 1911. He had come to Heidelberg with Victor Meyer in 1898. The director Theodor Curtius is standing at the far left of the secon
- Figure 9.2 The organic chemistry staff and researchers at Imperial College, 1921–2. The professor Jocelyn Field Thorpe (middle of the front row) was a leading organic chemist. Christopher Kelk Ingold (on Thorpe’s right), a pioneer of organic reaction mech
- Figure 10.1 The Botanical Laboratory in 1913. From left to right: Löbel, clerk, Van Raalte, assistant, and Dietz, charwoman. Courtesy: HUA 86334, GUA photographic service.
- Figure 11.1 Edith Saunders in her garden allotment. Courtesy: Newnham College, Cambridge.
- Figure 11.2 Elisabeth Schiemann (1881–1972) in white coat, demonstrating Antirrhinum mutants to the attendants of the International Conference for Genetics in 1927 in Berlin. Courtesy: Archives of the Max Planck Society, Berlin.
- Figure 12.1 Title page of the first volume (1867–8) of the second series of the Onderzoekingen. Donders thanked all those who had contributed to the establishment of a laboratory that ‘is certainly not surpassed in efficiency and elegance by any of the ex
- Figure 12.2 The 1923 International Conference of Phytopathology at the laboratory of Johanna Westerdijk (seated in the second row, fourth from the right) in Baarn. The conference was held from 24 to 30 June at various institutes in the Netherlands. It hos
- Figure 13.1 The laboratory of Madame Curie. Source: La Nature, 32 (1904), p. 217.
- Figure 13.2 Pierre and Marie Curie in their laboratory. Source: Le Petit Parisien, Supplément littéraire illustré, 16 (10 January 1904), front page.
- Figure 13.3 Floorplan of the ground floor of the new laboratories of the Muséum d’histoire naturelle in Paris. Source: La Nature, 1 (1873), p. 6.
- Figure 13.4 The laboratory of general microbiology at the Institut Pasteur. Source: La Nature, 17 (1889), p. 65.
- Figure 13.5 Interior of a small study in the laboratory of the marine station at Roscoff (Brittany). Source: La Nature, 13 (1885), p. 345.
- Figure 13.6 A large student laboratory in the Chemical Laboratory of Leipzig University. Source: La Nature, 5 (1877), p. 169.
- Figure 13.7 Henri Moissan busy preparing fluor substances in his laboratory at the École de pharmacie in Paris. Source: La Nature, 18 (1890), p. 177.
- Figure 13.8 Marcellin Berthelot in his study, after a photograph by ‘Dornac’ (Paul Cardon). Source: La Nature, 22 (1894), p. 281.
- Figure 13.9 Berthelot in his laboratory at the Collège de France. Source: La Nature, 55 (1927), p. 338.
- Charts
- Chart 10.1 Indices of student and population growth, 1875–1950 (1910 = 100). Source: Jensma and De Vries, Veranderingen in het hoger onderwijs in Nederland, pp. 190–210; CBS, Statistics Netherlands.
- Chart 10.2 Staff development at Utrecht University, 1915–40. Source: RUU Budgets.
- Chart 10.3 Ratio of (ord.) professors and research assistants and support staff at Utrecht University, 1915–40. Source: RUU Budgets.
- Chart 10.4 Innovations in support positions at Utrecht University, 1915–40. Source: RUU Budgets.
- Chart 10.5 New laboratory positions at Utrecht University, 1915–40. Source: RUU Budgets.
- Chart 10.6 Specialization in the workshop at Utrecht University, 1915–40. Source: RUU Budgets.
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