Large ships transporting hazardous cargoes, notorious marine accidents, and damage to marine ecosystems from tanker spills have heightened public concern for the safe navigation of ships.
This new volume offers a complete, highly readable assessment of marine navigation and piloting. It addresses the application of new technology to reduce the probability of accidents, controversies over the effectiveness of waterways management and marine pilotage, and navigational decisionmaking. The book also explores the way pilots of ships and tugs are trained, licensed, and held accountable.
Minding the Helm approaches navigational safety from the perspectives of risk assessment and the integration of human, technological, and organizational systems. Air and marine traffic regulation methods are compared, including the use of vessel traffic services.
With a store of current information and examples, this document will be indispensable to federal and state pilotage and licensing authorities and marine traffic regulators, the Coast Guard, pilot associations, and the shipping and towing industries. It will also interest individuals involved in waterway design, marine education, and the marine environment.
- Minding the Helm
- Copyright
- Acknowledgments
- Preface
- BACKGROUND
- NATIONAL RESEARCH COUNCIL STUDY
- SCOPE OF STUDY
- REPORT ORGANIZATION
- Contents
- Executive Summary
- INTRODUCTION
- Overview of Marine Navigation and Piloting
- Synopsis of Major Findings and Recommendations
- RISK IN THE MARINE OPERATING ENVIRONMENT
- Major Findings
- Summary Recommendations
- HUMAN SYSTEMS
- Major Findings
- Summary Recommendations
- MARINE PILOTAGE
- Major Findings
- Pilotage Practice
- Pilotage Standards
- Jurisdiction and Licensing
- Pilotage of Coastwise Tugs and Tows
- Summary Recommendations
- Standards
- Jurisdiction and Licensing
- Coastwise Tugs and Tows
- WATERWAYS MANAGEMENT
- Major Findings
- Port-State Control
- Marine Traffic Regulation
- Summary Recommendations
- Port-State Control
- Marine Traffic Regulation
- NAVIGATION AND PILOTING TECHNOLOGY
- Major Findings
- Introduction of New Technology and Performance Criteria
- Hydrographic and Topographic Data
- Positioning Systems
- Integrated Bridge and Control Systems
- Traditional Aids to Navigation
- Summary Recommendations
- Introduction of New Technology
- Institutional Considerations
- Hydrographic and Topographic Data
- Positioning Systems
- Traditional Aids to Navigation
- MARITIME RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
- Major Findings
- Summary Recommendations
- 1 The Marine Navigation and Piloting System
- SUMMARY
- INTRODUCTION
- PILOTAGE
- VESSEL AND WATERWAY SYSTEMS
- Port and Waterway Design and Operation
- Waterways Management
- Marine Traffic Regulation
- Vessel Traffic Services (VTS)
- Traffic Control Issues
- Port-State Versus Flag-State Control
- Economic Versus Social Regulation
- HUMAN SYSTEMS
- Shiphandling Skills
- Masters
- Deck Officers
- Bridge Team Support
- TECHNOLOGY
- ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURES AND STRUCTURES FOR DECISION-MAKING
- RISK AND CHANGE IN THE MARINE NAVIGATION AND PILOTING SYSTEM
- Assessing Risk
- Changes in the Marine Navigation and Piloting System
- Marine Industry Issues
- Public Safety Issues
- The Marine Accident Record
- THE PILOTAGE CONTROVERSY
- 2 Piloting Practices
- SUMMARY
- INTRODUCTION
- PILOTAGE OVERVIEW
- Pilots
- Types of Pilots
- Numbers of Pilots
- Pilot Services
- Pilot Grounds
- Governance
- Master-Pilot Relationships
- Pilot Responsibilities
- Pilot Compensation
- Professional Development
- Development of Federal Pilots
- Development of Marine Pilots and Docking Masters
- Pilots and Modern Technology
- PILOTAGE SYSTEMS AND MODELS
- The Role of Pilotage Models
- Central Features of a Complete Pilotage System
- Changing Pilotage Systems
- 3 Pilotage Administration
- SUMMARY
- INTRODUCTION
- REGULATING PROFESSIONS AND PROFESSIONALS
- FEDERAL REGULATION OF PILOTAGE
- Federal Pilotage Requirements
- Waters and Vessels Subject to Federal Pilotage
- Federal Licensing Requirements
- Federal Pilot Examinations
- Official Discipline Under the Federal Pilotage System
- Coast Guard Resources for Overseeing Pilotage
- Assessment of Federal Pilotage
- STATE REGULATION OF PILOTAGE
- State Pilotage Requirements
- State-Level Resources for Administering Pilotage
- State Pilotage Boards
- State Pilot Associations
- Training and Professional Development
- Pilot Discipline and Operational Oversight Under State Systems
- Assessment of State Pilotage Systems
- OTHER FORMS OF PILOTAGE
- Docking, Undocking, and Mooring Services
- Docking and Mooring Masters
- Training and Practice
- Accountability
- Assessment of Docking and Mooring Services for Vessels in Foreign Trade
- Pilotage in Federal Canals
- Pilotage in the Towing Industry
- Pilotage for Coastwise Towing Industry Vessels
- Pilotage of Inland Towing Vessels
- Public Criticism of Pilotage in the Towing Industry
- Pilotage of Military Sealift Command Ships
- Pilotage of Inland Passenger Vessels
- Pilotage for Dredges
- European and British Columbia Pilotage Systems
- Pilotage Systems
- Pilot Qualifications
- Pilot Training Using Shiphandling Simulation
- IMPROVING PILOTAGE PRACTICES AND ADMINISTRATION
- Alternatives for Improving Pilotage Systems
- Establish National Guidelines or Standards
- Establish Code of Professional Ethics
- Establish Universal Entry-level Qualifications
- Require Emergency Shiphandling Training
- Require Continuing Professional Development
- Require Pilot Recertification
- Verification of Professional Competence
- Establish Vessel Type and Size Criteria for Federal Pilotage
- Relieve Federal Pilots of Non-Pilotage Duties
- Closing Institutional Gaps
- Jurisdictional Gaps in Ship Pilotage, Docking, and Mooring
- Docking, Undocking, and Vessel Transport Services
- Redefining the Pilot's Role
- Master–Pilot Working Relationship
- Marine Pilot Responsibilities Relative to Substandard Ships
- Improving Pilotage in the Towing Industry
- Consolidating Pilotage into a Single Program for Each Port and Waterway System
- Consolidating Ship Pilotage Under a Single Authority
- Implementing National Standards and a Port-Level Pilotage System
- 4 Risk, the Operating Environment, and Safety
- SUMMARY
- INTRODUCTION
- RISK
- Decision Analysis and Risk
- Decision Analysis
- Risk Analysis
- Relationship Between Probabilistic Risk and Perceived Risk
- RISK IN MARINE TRANSPORTATION
- Considerations in Reducing the Probability of Accidents
- Traditional Risk Management by Mariners
- Assessing Risk in Marine Transportation
- Consequences of Risk
- THE OPERATING ENVIRONMENT FROM A RISK ASSESSMENT PERSPECTIVE
- A Tale of Six Rivers
- Vessel Behavior
- Forces Acting on a Ship
- Controlled Hydrodynamic Interactions
- Transit Considerations
- ISSUES TO BE ADDRESSED BY QUANTITATIVE RISK MANAGEMENT
- Data Limitations
- Causal Factors in Marine Accidents
- Communications
- Navigation Technology
- Shore- and Waterway-based Navigation Support Services
- Data on Pilotage Risk
- Controversy Over Pilot Safety Performance
- IMPROVING RISK ASSESSMENT, MANAGEMENT, AND COMMUNICATION
- Establish a Near-Miss Reporting System
- Establish an Exposure Data Base
- Establish a Comprehensive Risk Assessment Program
- 5 Marine Traffic Regulation
- SUMMARY
- REGULATION OF MARINE AND AIR TRAFFIC
- COMPARISON OF AIR TRAFFIC CONTROL AND MARINE TRAFFIC REGULATION
- Overview
- Federal Marine and Aviation Infrastructures
- The National Airspace System
- Applying the Aviation Model to Marine Transportation
- Comparing the Aviation and Marine Operating Environments
- Additional Considerations in the Marine Setting
- MARINE ALTERNATIVES TO THE AVIATION MODEL
- Overview
- Existing VTS Systems
- VTS Programs and Objectives
- VTS Effectiveness
- VTS Operations
- The Marine Community's VTS Advisory Role
- IMPROVING WATERWAYS MANAGEMENT
- Port-by-Port Expansion of VTS
- Adapting the Aviation Model to Marine Transportation
- Shore-based Pilotage
- IMPLEMENTING MORE RIGOROUS MARINE TRAFFIC REGULATION
- 6 Navigation and Piloting Technology
- SUMMARY
- INTRODUCTION
- SUMMARY OF IMPROVEMENT OPTIONS
- IMPROVING NAVIGATION TECHNOLOGIES
- Passage/Route Planning
- Choosing the Charting Medium
- Scaling Factors
- Accuracy of Nautical Charts
- Options for Immediate Action
- Options for Incremental Improvements
- Options for Long-term Development
- Position Fixing
- The Traditional Approach
- The High-Technology Approach
- Supporting Technologies and Resources
- Options for Immediate Action
- Options for Incremental Improvement
- Options for Long-Term Development
- Communications
- Options for Incremental Improvements
- Options for Long-Term Development
- Collision Avoidance and Surveillance
- Options for Incremental Improvements
- Options for Long-Term Development
- Steering and Track Keeping
- Options for Incremental Improvements
- Options for Long-Term Development
- Decision-Making Aids
- Options for Incremental Improvements
- Options for Long-Term Development
- Weather and Environment Monitoring
- Options for Incremental Improvements
- Options for Long-Term Development
- Docking Evolutions
- Options for Incremental Improvements
- Options for Long-Term Development
- TECHNOLOGICAL CHANGE
- How Marine Navigation Technology is Adopted
- Marine Transportation Companies and Technological Change
- Mariners and Technological Change
- Pitfalls of the Application Process: Some Examples
- Multiple Equipment Configurations and Regulatory Restrictions
- Performance Objectives and Assessments
- Performance Objectives vs. Equipment Mandates
- Ensuring Pilot and Watch Officer Proficiency
- Technology-Induced Changes to Pilotage
- 7 A Human Systems Perspective on Marine Navigation and Piloting
- SUMMARY
- INTRODUCTION
- AN ORGANIZATIONAL VIEW OF NAVIGATION AND PILOTING SYSTEMS
- The Operating Environment
- Internal Organizational Processes
- Shipboard Command and Control Organization
- Interrelationships on the Navigation Bridge
- Opportunities for Human Error in Traditional Practices
- APPLYING ORGANIZATIONAL SAFETY STRATEGIES TO MARINE NAVIGATION AND PILOTING
- Recent Innovations in Navigation and Piloting
- Bridge Teams
- One-Person Bridge
- Pilot–CoPilot Model
- Marine Simulation
- Reducing Risk
- Command, Control, Communications, and Information
- Error Reduction
- Reaction Time
- Automating Error-Prone Functions
- Rationalization of Tasks
- Organizational Approaches for Improving Safety
- Structuring
- Decision-Making
- Communication
- Culture
- Recent Human Factors Research and Development
- 8 Research Needs
- SUMMARY
- INTRODUCTION
- THE MARINE TRANSPORTATION RESEARCH ENVIRONMENT
- ELEMENTS OF AN HOLISTIC RESEARCH PROGRAM
- Marine-Systems Safety
- Waterways Management
- Navigation and Piloting Technology
- Port-State Versus Flag-State Policy
- Navigation and Piloting Practice
- Human Systems
- ESTABLISHING A RESEARCH PROGRAM
- 9 A Vision of the Future
- IMPROVING SAFETY PERFORMANCE
- Scope of Needed Improvements
- SPECIFIC AREAS FOR IMPROVEMENT
- Enforcement of Marine Safety Laws and Regulations
- Marine Pilots
- Marine Traffic Regulation
- Navigation and Piloting Technology
- Traditional Aids to Navigation
- Technology and Crew Size
- FEDERAL AGENCY ROLES
- 10 Conclusions and Recommendations
- MARINE NAVIGATION AND PILOTING: INTEGRATING THE SYSTEM
- Understanding Risk in the Marine Navigation and Piloting System
- Casualty Reports and Safety Records
- HUMAN SYSTEMS
- Professional Development
- Marine Simulation
- MARINE PILOTAGE
- Safety Performance
- Pilotage Administration and System Standards
- Pilotage System Development and Oversight
- Strengthening Pilotage Administration
- Pilotage in the Coastwise Towing Industry
- Transition Issues
- WATERWAYS MANAGEMENT
- Enforcement of Shipping Laws and Regulations
- Management of Waterways Systems
- Special Operational Considerations
- NAVIGATION AND PILOTING TECHNOLOGY
- Traditional Aids to Navigation
- Navigation Systems
- Communications
- MARINE NAVIGATION AND PILOTING RESEARCH NEEDS
- Appendixes
- Appendix A Biographies
- Appendix B Acknowledgments
- Appendix C Papers Prepared for This Study
- Appendix D A Review of Pilotage Studies Covering U.S. Navigable Waters
- State And Federal Pilot Issues
- 1942 Coast Guard Study
- Assets of the State Pilot Systems
- Weaknesses of the State Pilot System
- Weaknesses of the Federal Pilot System
- 1989 Battelle/American Pilots' Association Study
- Methodology
- Findings
- Analysis
- 1991 American Institute of Merchant Shipping Study
- Methodology
- Findings
- Analysis
- 1991 Battelle Rebuttal to the 1991 AIMS Study
- 1993 U.S. Coast Guard Rebuttal to National Transportation Safety Board Petersfield/Bayou Boeuf Recommendations
- Methodology
- Findings
- Usefulness
- Port-Level Safety Analyses
- 1991 Port Needs Study
- Methodology
- Data
- Findings
- Usefulness
- Pilot Governance And Administration
- 1990 Great Lakes Audit
- 1992 State of Florida Piloting Regulation Audit
- Vessel Safety
- 1991 Nautical Institute Report on Management of Safety
- The 1989 "Bell Report"
- Piloting Practice
- 1989 "Bauman Report"
- Methodology
- Findings
- Usefulness of the Results
- 1992 American Waterways Operators (AWO) Report to Committee on Advances in Navigation and Piloting
- 1985 Temple, Barker, and Sloane Report
- Analyses of Marine Accidents and Incidents
- 1972 National Transportation Safety Board Report
- Appendix E Central Features of a Complete Pilotage System
- Professional Development
- Recruitment
- Experience
- Knowledge
- Skills
- Continuing Professional Development
- Proficiency Validation
- Recency
- Accountability
- Certification/Recertification
- Licensing
- Exemptions
- Professional Oversight
- Incident/Accident Investigation
- Safety Performance Monitoring
- Discipline
- Local Involvement
- Audits
- Standards
- Administrative Standards
- Professional Standards
- Physical Condition Standards
- Organization
- Organizational Structure
- Infrastructure
- Appendix F Pilot Training Requirements
- Federal Pilot Licenses and Endorsements
- Interport Pilots Agency (Connecticut, Delaware, New Jersey, New York)
- New York/New Jersey Docking Masters
- McCormick Docking Pilots (Port of New York and New Jersey)
- Wilmington-Cape Fear Pilots (North Carolina)
- Cape Fear Docking Pilots (North Carolina)
- Associated Federal Coast Pilots (Louisiana)
- Puget Sound (Washington)
- State Pilot Licenses
- Alaska
- California
- San Francisco Bar Pilots
- Long Beach and Los Angeles
- Florida
- Hawaii
- Louisiana
- Crescent River Port Pilots
- New Orleans-Baton Rouge Pilots
- Associated Branch Pilots
- New York
- Maine
- Maryland
- Oregon
- Columbia River Bar Pilots
- Columbia River Pilots
- South Carolina
- Texas
- Washington
- British Columbia, Canada
- The Netherlands
- United Kingdom
- Sweden
- Panama Canal
- Training In The U.S. Towing Industry
- Coastal and Harbor Towing Industry Vessels
- Inland Towing Industry
- Appendix G A Primer on Navigation Technologies
- Traditional Bridge Design and Operation
- Navigation Technologies: Key Features and Uses
- Appendix H Summary Report of European Trip
- European Ports as Integrated Systems
- Pilotage
- Pilot Training Using Shiphandling Simulation
- Vessel Traffic Services
- VTS Initiatives of the International Association of Lighthouse Authorities
- Glossary
- References
- Index
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